Music, more than ever before, forms part of our lives - in shops, restaurants, bars, hotels, buses, aircraft, cars, it has become almost inescapable. With the help of a portable-cassette or compact-disc player, it can accompany you wherever you go. If you play these instruments too loudly through earphones, you may (as the manufacturers warn) grow deaf. Most people, however, seem already deaf to background music, so ever-present has it become.
Yet if asked to define music, most of us would find it hard to answer. Surprisingly, the multi-volume New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians takes the subject so completely for granted that it does not attempt a definition. The Collins English Dictionary calls it 'an art form consisting of sequences of sounds in time, especially tones of definite pitch organized melodically, harmonically, rhythmically and according to tone color'.
But not all music aspires to being an art form, and not all music is melodic, harmonic, or rhythmic. John Cage's piano piece, 4' 33" for Henry Flint, requires the performer to sit at the keyboard for a specified amount of time, without touching the instrument. What the audience 'hears' is the silence, or absence of silence, for Cage's 'music' inevitably incorporates every sound or rustle that occurs within earshot during the piece's duration. Electronic music, which modern composers have developed into a heavy industry, likewise defies preconceptions. Many listeners still refuse to accept it as legitimate music, yet, as a distinguished critic once pointed out, if that's not music, so much the worse for music.
Music, then, is an art that is difficult to tie down. Its components may include melody, rhythm, harmony, pitch and timbre (tone color), not necessarily all at the same time.
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p568-2
What is Music? (2 of 6)
The origins of music
In its most primitive form, music may evoke the sound of the elements - earth, air, fire, water. Since humans have always been imitative animals, it seems natural that nature itself should have provided the scope for the earliest music and the materials for the earliest musical instruments. Where these materials - sticks, stones, bones, bells, reed pipes or whatever - were not available, the human voice was a more than adequate substitute, relieving loneliness, making contact with other people, reflecting the rhythms of manual labor or simply of walking, celebrating victories, or paying tribute to primitive deities - often in combination with dancing.
The sophisticated evolution of music - even the notes of a simple scale or chord - took place over a period of centuries. There was certainly a rich musical tradition in the years before Christ - for example in India, China, Egypt and Greece, much of it tantalizing because it was passed on orally, not written down. Even today, in Asia particularly, this tradition persists, because music is regarded as improvisatory and contemplative, ceaselessly changing, rather than something perfected and fixed on paper.
In Europe, much of what we today call music emerged through the spread of Christianity and of Judaism, particularly through medieval plainsong chants, which were single lines of notated vocal melody in free rhythm (i.e. not divided into bar lengths) sung in churches, and through Gregorian chant, named after Pope Gregory I, in whose time (around AD 600) it was systematized. This still forms part of Roman Catholic musical ritual. However, its modes (or 'scales') gradually gave way to the modern scale.
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p568-3
g What is Music? (3 of 6)
The components of music
A musical note, therefore, is more than just a 'noise'. It is a single sound of definite pitch and duration, which can be identified in writing. The pitch of a note is its height or depth in relation to other notes, or in relation to an absolute pitch. This absolute pitch has internationally been set at A = 440 Hz (hertz); that is, the A above middle C has a frequency of 440 cycles or vibrations per second.
A scale is a progression of notes in ascending or descending order, while a melody (or tune) assembles a series of notes into a recognizable musical shape. However, to suggest, as some people do, that modern music lacks 'melody' may merely mean that the listener has failed to identify, or come to terms with, the melodies it contains - even Beethoven and Verdi, to some ears, once seemed unmelodic.
A melody usually, though not necessarily, possesses rhythm, which listeners often assume to mean beat. In fact, the beat of a piece of music is simply its regular pulse, determined by the bar lines by which music is metrically divided (two beats in the bar and so forth). Rhythm can be an infinitely more complex arrangement of notes into a mixture of short and long durations (or time values) within a single bar or across a series of bars. The time in which a piece of music (or section of a piece) is written is identified by a time signature at the beginning of the piece or section. Thus 3/4 time (three-four time), which is waltz time, represents three crotchets to the bar. This means that the main beat comes every three crotchets:1 2 3, 1 2 3, etc.; 4/4 time, which is march time, has four crotchets: 1 2 3 4, 1 2 3 4, etc.; 3/8 and 6/8 represent three and six quavers, respectively. There are also many more complex time signatures.
A melody may have harmony. This means that it is accompanied by chords, which are combinations of notes, simultaneously sounded. It may also have counterpoint, whereby another melody, or succession of notes with musical shape, is simultaneously combined with it. 'Rules' of harmony and counterpoint, stating which notes could be acceptably combined and which could not, have been matters of concern to scholars, teachers and pupils in the course of musical history. But as with any other grammar, progressive composers have known when to break or bend the rules to the benefit of their own music.
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What is Music? (4 of 6)
Tonality
The old modes, or scales, employed in the Middle Ages gradually gave way in the 17th century to a modern tonality - scales laid out in 12 major and minor keys, each consisting of a sequence of seven notes, divided into tones and semitones. Each of the 12 major and minor scales starts on one of the 12 semitones into which an octave is divided. Melodies in a specific key use the notes of that scale, and the order in which the notes are used determines the nature of the melody. On a piano the scale of C major consists entirely of white notes, starting on C.
The notes from C to the next C, either above or below, form an octave. A note and another. For example, the A above middle C is 440 cycles per second, and the A above that is 880 cycles.
From C to D (the first 'white' note above) represents an interval of a tone, from C to C sharp (the first 'black' note) an interval of a semitone, so called because it represents half a tone. But from E to F, and from B to C, also forms a semitone (on a piano there is no black note between them). A scale therefore consists of a mixture of tone and semitone intervals. A chromatic scale, on the other hand, employs nothing but semitones, and thus requires all 12 of the white and black notes to be used. The whole-tone scale - used, for example, by Debussy - moves entirely in tones. Starting on C, it would consist of the notes C-D-E-F sharp-G sharp-A sharp.
In musical terminology, a sharp ( ) indicates a semitone rise in pitch, and a flat () a semitone fall. A natural ( ) is a note that is neither sharp nor flat, though the indication sign needs only to be used in special circumstances.
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What is Music? (5 of 6)
The first note of a scale is known as the tonic, or 'keynote'. The tonic of the scale of C is therefore the note C. All other scales require one or more black notes to be played in order to produce the same sequence of intervals. The sequence of intervals between the notes in a major scale is therefore as follows (using C major as an example):
C [tone] D [tone] E [semitone] F [tone] G [tone] A [tone] B [semitone] C.
Minor scales employ a different sequence of notes from major, and incorporate, in particular, a flattened third (in the scale of C minor the note E, a 'third' higher than the note C, is 'flattened' to the black note immediately below, i.e. E flat). It is this that gives minor keys what listeners traditionally identify as their element of 'sadness' compared with major ones. There are two commonly used forms of the minor scale, and the sequence of intervals are as follows (using A minor as an example):
Harmonic Minor: A [tone] B [semitone] C [tone] D [tone] E [semitone] F [1 1/2 tones] G sharp [semitone] A.
Melodic Minor: A [tone] B [semitone] C [tone] D [tone] E [tone] F sharp [tone] G sharp [semitone] A.
There is a different descending sequence in melodic scales:
A [tone] G [tone] F [semitone] E [tone]D [tone] C [semitone] B [tone] A.
It is important to remember that these scales are conventions - conventions to which our ears are attuned through familiarity. The modes of ancient Greece and medieval Europe employed different sequences of tones and semitones, and the scales used in Indian music and some modern jazz, for example, may use quarter tones.
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What is Music? (6 of 6)
The development of tonality was celebrated by Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) in 24 keyboard preludes and fugues, one in each key, known as the Well-tempered Clavier. These displayed the advantages of the (at the time) novel system of equal temperament, whereby all of the notes of a keyboard instrument were 'tempered' to be precisely a semitone apart. The notes C sharp and D flat thus became identical, which was not (and still is not) the case with other instruments. On a string instrument, where the notes are not pre-set, C sharp and D flat are slightly different from each other - imperceptibly so to the ears of most listeners, though there is a passage in Wagner's Siegfried Idyll where the violins do audibly move from a sustained A sharp to a sustained B flat, an effect impossible on a piano.
In the course of a piece of music, a composer may often modulate, or change key, in order to avoid monotony. In Bach's time, and beyond, an established and logical change was to the key based on the fifth note of the scale, known as the dominant (the note G in the key of C). Harmonically this is closely related to the tonic note, so the transition could be made from one key to the other, and back to the home key, without difficulty. But modulations to harmonically more 'distant' keys, though at one time frowned on for pedantic reasons, were soon found to be a source of dramatic effects, as also was the sudden contrast between a minor key and a major, exploited by composers such as Beethoven with increasing freedom. By the time Wagner composed Tristan and Isolde (1865), modulation had become so fluid that it was only a step away from atonality, or the composition of music in no fixed key at all. Atonality was systematized by Schoenberg in what he described as dodecaphonic or 'twelve-note' music. In this method of composition, one of the major influences on 20th- century music, the twelve notes within an octave were employed in such a way that there was no home key and no reliance on modulation in the old sense, though key relationships did often remain implied, even if not specifically stated.
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Plainsong and Polyphony (page 1)
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"Plainsong and Polyphony (1 of 2)
The beginnings of Western music lie in the cultures of the ancient Near East, where music is believed to have been used as an accompaniment to religious worship, dance, and work. The musical culture of the Eastern Mediterranean was transplanted to the Western Mediterranean by the Romans, and after the decline of the Roman Empire, it was the Christian Church that perpetuated and extended the musical heritage of antiquity.
Two of the crucial developments in the early history of Western music were plainsong and polyphony, both of which came about through the spread of the Christian religion, and whose musical foundations lay partly in Jewish chant, partly in Greece and Rome, and almost anywhere else where Christianity had taken root.
Plainsong
Plainsong, consisting of a single line of vocal melody in 'free' rhythm (i.e. not divided into metered bar lengths), gained ground during the early years of Christianity and reached its peak in Gregorian chant, still used in the Roman Catholic Church today. Other parts of Europe produced their own ritual music of similar type. Byzantine music largely consisted of the liturgical chant of the Eastern Orthodox Churches; Spanish church music showed Moorish influences; the French had their Gallic Rite; and through Ambrosian Chant, named after the 4th-century St Ambrose of Milan, there spread the practice of antiphons, whereby two separate bodies of singers performed plainsong chants in response to one another.
Monophony and polyphony
Plainsong, being confined to a single line of unaccompanied melody, falls into the category of monophonic music - Greek for 'single sound', implying absence of harmonic support or other melodies performed simultaneously with the original. Polyphony, conversely, means 'many sounds', and indicates the simultaneous sounding of two or more independent melodic lines to produce a coherent musical texture. The melodies in polyphony are described as being in counterpoint to each other, and the resulting music as contrapuntal. The art of polyphony began to emerge in Europe in the 12th and 13th centuries.
Ars Antiqua and Ars Nova
The most influential center of musical activity in the 12th and 13th centuries was the church of Notre Dame in Paris, where the choirmasters Luonin (active 12th century) and Purotin (c.1160-1240) developed a musical style based on plain song and organum, an early form of polyphony involving the addition of parts to a plainsong melody. Such music was described by writers of the early 14th century as 'Ars Antiqua' (Latin for 'old art') to distinguish it from its successor 'Ars Nova' (Latin for 'new art'). Ars Nova, which flourished in France and Italy in the 14th century, incorporated significant innovations in the areas of rhythm and harmony.
France's proclaimed flower of Ars Nova was Guillaume de Machaut (c. 1300-77), a composer of brilliant ingenuity and a champion of isorhythms, whereby rhythm and melody followed strictly repeated patterns that were not in synchronization with each other. In addition to his important innovations in the mass and the motet, Machaut was also a pioneer of the polyphonic setting of poetry in fixed song forms, such as the ballade, the rondeau and the virelai.Collectively these song forms are known as chansons.
Secular song
Secular compositions such as these were greatly influenced - especially in their metric system - by the flourishing medieval tradition of monophonic secular song that preceded them. In France the troubadors - itinerant poet-musicians, often of aristocratic birth - were active in Provence in the 11th and 12th centuries. Their German equivalents were the Minnesinger (German 'love singers'), whose successors, the guilds of Meistersinger ('Mastersingers'), established themselves in some German cities in the 15th and 16th centuries.
The Renaissance
Generally, the beginning of the Renaissance in music is reckoned to be found in the increasing secularization of music that took place at the court of Burgundy in the early years of the 15th century. Among the leading musicians of Western Europe attracted to the courts of Philip the Good and Charles the Bold were the Franco-Flemish composers Guillaume Dufay (c. 1400-74) and Gilles Binchois (c. 1400-60). Also active in France at this time was the influential English composer John Dunstable (c. 1385-1453).
During this period significant developments occurred both in religious and secular musical forms. In the domain of religious music, composers concentrated their efforts on the forms of the mass and the motet. Plainsong melodies had formed the basis of earlier polyphonic settings for the mass, but Dufay began the practice of borrowing secular songs for the same purpose.
Musicians from the Low Countries continued to dominate the European musical stage in the second half of the 15th century. Johannes Ockeghem (c. 1425-c. 1495) spent his career in the service of kings of France, while his pupil Josquin Despres (1440-1521) worked in both France and Italy before returning to his native Flanders. In their sacred polyphony, Ockeghem, Josquin and their contemporaries added further parts, so increasing the breadth of sound. While the mass, the motet and the chanson continued to be the chief forms of composition, new forms were also emerging, notably, in northern Italy, the frottola - a simple chordal precursor of the madrigal.
The polyphonic style established by Ockeghem and Josquin persisted to the beginning of the 16th century, but gradually different national styles and forms began to emerge. An important harmonic development was the use of chromaticism (the use of notes outside the mode of the composition), which foreshadowed the passing of the medieval modal system. Different types of mass setting developed, especially where the Reformation had established Protestant worship. In Germany the Lutheran chorale (later to exercise a deep influence on the music of J.S. Bach) took root, while in England the anthem (the Protestant equivalent of the Latin motet) took its place in the liturgy of the Church of England. But as the 16th century progressed, it was Italy that emerged as the crucially important musical center.
The polyphonic mass reached its apogee in the work of three great composers: the Italian Giovanni Palestrina (c. 1525-84), the Spaniard Luis de Victoria (c. 1548-1611), and the Flemish Roland de Lassus (1532-94). The harmonic vividness and smooth, flowing lines of Palestrina's polyphony are displayed in over 100 masses and 250 motets embracing many different styles and numbers of voices. The masses of Victoria are characterized by subtle, expressive polyphony and intense dramatic feeling. Roland de Lassus represents the high-water mark of Flemish polyphony. In a prolific and cosmopolitan career, he produced nearly 2000 works, including masses, motets, psalm settings, chansons, madrigals and canzonas.
In Venice, a more flamboyant polychoral (multi-choir) style was developed by the Venetians Andrea Gabrieli (c. 1510-86) and his nephew and pupil Giovanni Gabrieli (1557-1612). Giovanni's motets featured a rich instrumental accompaniment, and made use of the antiphonal effects that it was possible to obtain in St Mark's Church in Venice, where the congregation was framed by two balconies.
The European polyphonic tradition was introduced into England by Thomas Tallis (c. 1505-85). Tallis's works include masses, two settings of the Magnificat, and the extraordinary 40-part motet, Spem in alium. He was one of the first composers to provide settings of the Anglican liturgy.
Although based in Protestant England, William Byrd (1543-1623) - a Catholic - composed his greatest music for the Roman liturgy. Byrd produced three masses and numerous motets for the Roman Catholic Church, as well as anthems and psalm settings for the Anglican Church in a style which, while showing him to be versed in the work of Palestrina and the continental masters, is marked by genuine individuality as well as technical mastery.
Byrd was active in other genres. In his music for virginal (an early keyboard instrument similar to the harpsichord) he developed the variation form and prepared the ground for the achievements of other English keyboard composers such as John Bull (c. 1562-1628), Orlando Gibbons (1583-1625) and Thomas Tomkins (1572-1656). Byrd's fantasias for viol consort established a style of composition that was to influence a whole generation of Jacobean composers. His secular songs, composed for solo voice accompanied by viol consort, draw on a native English tradition and, unlike the madrigals of his contemporaries, show little Italian influence.
nfluence.
lian influence.
* WHAT IS MUSIC?
* MUSIC OF THE BAROQUE
* CLASSICAL MUSIC
* THE SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA AND ITS INSTRUMENTS
* OPERA
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Plainsong and Polyphony (page 2)
ftsTitle
Claudio Monteverdi, the Italian composer of operas, madrigals and sacred music, painted by Bernardo Strozzi in 1640. Only three of the 12 operas Monteverdi is known to have written have survived, but their blend of rich orchestral texture, dramatically effective recitative, songs and choral writing ensure their status as landmarks in the history of musical drama. (Museum Ferdinandeum, Innsbruck/Archiv fer Kunst)
Plainsong and Polyphony (2 of 2)
The madrigal
The art of the madrigal - a secular polyphonic composition for several voices, usually based on poems of some literary merit - had its roots in Italy, where early forms of the madrigal first appeared in the 14th century. The type of madrigal that emerged in the 16th century was the result of the marriage of the frottola with the more sophisticated musical techniques of the Flemish and those trained by them. Early madrigal composers were Flemish composers resident in Italy, and their madrigals were written for three or four voices. A larger number of voices and a more consistently polyphonic style became the norm as the century progressed. In the hands of composers such as Luca Marenzio (c. 1553-99), Carlo Gesualdo (c. 1560-1613) and, above all, Claudio Monteverdi, the madrigal became a highly sophisticated and dramatic genre, incorporating many colorful effects and vivid word-painting.
Italian madrigals began to appear in England in the late 16th century. A native English tradition of madrigal composition incorporating features of the secular song as exemplified by Byrd and Gibbons was quickly established by composers such as Thomas Morley (1557-c. 1602), Thomas Weelkes (c. 1576-1623) and John Wilbye (1574-1638).
Another vocal genre popular in England was the ayre, a less contrapuntal form than the madrigal, usually performed tolute or consort accompaniment. Pre-eminent among England's school of lutenist song composers was John Dowland (1563-1626), the melancholy beauty of whose music made him famous throughout Europe.
Instrumental music
In the Middle Ages instruments were principally used to double voices in vocal polyphony or to provide music for dancing. The real burgeoning of instrumental music took place in the 16th century. Dance forms such as the stately pavan and vigorous galliard emerged, and were often composed in pairs, prefiguring the instrumental dance suites of the 17th century. Non-dance forms included the canzona, the ricercare and the fantasia. The canzona - an intricate fugal form - began life as a vocal composition, and developed as an instrumental form for keyboard, lute or instrumental ensemble. Similar to the canzona in its use of melodic imitation was the fantasia, a composition for consorts of string or wind instruments, which enjoyed a particular vogue in England in the 16th and 17th centuries. The ricercare - another elaborate fugal form - first appeared as a form of lute composition in the early 16th century, but later examples of the form were written for organ and consorts of viols.
Instrumental music in the 16th century was performed principally on the lute, the organ, the virginal and other stringed keyboard instruments and by instrumental ensembles. The lute in particular enjoyed immense popularity as a domestic instrument for solo playing and song accompaniment. Instrumental ensembles of the Renaissance period never became standardized, but consorts of viols, and groups of wind instruments such as cornetts and sackbuts were common.
Towards the Baroque
Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643) is chiefly celebrated today as the composer of three innovative operas and the Vespro della Beata Vergine ('Vespers of the Blessed Virgin'; 1610), which runs the entire gamut of contemporary types of sacred music. Monteverdi's church music displays two contrasting trends: one following the traditional polyphonic style, the other tending towards the newer Baroque style of brilliant and expressive writing for solo voices and chorus.
The greatest German composer of the 17th century was Heinrich Schetz (1585-1672), who encountered the new Italian style while a pupil of Giovanni Gabrieliin Venice. In his compositions for the Lutheran Church, Schetz adopted the Venetian polychoral style of the Gabrielis, the operatic style of Monteverdi, and the emerging concertante style of his Italian contemporaries - and then married these with the native German polyphonic tradition. Schetz's choral style was to prove an influence on German composers up until the time of Bach and Handel.
MASSES AND MOTETS
The Mass is the principal service of the Roman Catholic Church, which composers set to music as part of their duty to God and to their employers. From the 11th to the 13th centuries composers used original plainsong melodies as the basis for polyphonic settings of selected parts of the Mass. The first known integrated setting of the 'Ordinary' of the Mass (Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus with Benedictus, and Agnus Dei) was the 14th-century composer Guillaume de Machaut's Messe de Notre Dame. It was only in the first half of the 15th century that settings of the whole Ordinary of the Mass became the norm. Though early masses had no written instrumental parts, performances between the 15th and 17th centuries often alternated sung passages with passages played on the organ: these were known as organ masses. By the 18th century, masses with instrumental accompaniment had established themselves, as Bach's great B minor Mass, with its sonorous high trumpet parts, confirms.
A missa brevis was a concise version of the Mass, while a missa parodia was not a 'parody' in the modern sense of the word - the name merely referred to a type of mass, prevalent in the 15th and 16th centuries, in which composers drew elements from other works.
Requiem masses for the dead consisted of a somewhat different sequence of movements, including an opening Requiem aeternam ('Grant them eternal rest') and a Dies irae. Palestrina, Lassus and Victoria all produced requiems, and, via Mozart, Berlioz and Verdi, the practice has continued to our own day, as Benjamin Britten's War Requiem (1962) testifies.
A motet is a short choral work, often unaccompanied, whose origins go back to the 13th century. The early motet was a polyphonic composition for three voices, two accompanying voices being added in counterpoint to a plainsong or other melody sung by a tenor. The Renaissance motet - also polyphonic, and setting sacred Latin texts for four to six voices - reached its summit in the compositions of Victoria, Palestrina, Byrd and Tallis.
* WHAT IS MUSIC?
* MUSIC OF THE BAROQUE
* CLASSICAL MUSIC
* THE SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA AND ITS INSTRUMENTS
* OPERA
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Music of the Baroque (page 1)
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The Harpsichord Lesson by the Dutch painter Jan Steen (1626-79). From the Middle Ages through to the early 20th century, the ability to play an instrument or to sing was regarded as an essential accomplishment in polite society - particularly for women. (The Wallace Collection, London/Archiv fer Kunst)
Music of the Baroque (1 of 3)
Baroque, Classical and Romantic are the categories to which most music performed in the concert hall or opera house are assigned. But the boundaries of each are hazy, and the word Baroque is particularly difficult to define. A word of obscure origin, by the 17th and 18th centuries Baroque had become a term for the ornate, particularly ecclesiastical, architecture of the period. Other than defining a particular period between 1650 and 1750, Baroque has little meaning in application to music, though in its suggestion of ornateness of style it is obviously descriptive of certain types of 17th- and 18th-century composition. A distinction is generally made between composers of the 'early Baroque' (such as Monteverdi and Schetz), and those of the 'late Baroque' (most notably Bach and Handel).
The vocabulary and techniques of instrumental and vocal composition underwent a massive expansion in the 17th century. Revolutionary change took place also in the formal organization of music: the medieval modes that had been the basis of polyphonic composition in the 16th century giving way during the 17th century to a system involving the exclusive use of modern scales. In addition, innovations such as the concertato style - in which specific instrumental or vocal parts were accompanied by a basso continuo, or 'thorough bass' (involving a low-pitched instrument such as a cello or bass viol combined with a harpsichord, organ or lute) - distinguish the Baroque from the Renaissance that preceded it.
Italy
As well as providing the emerging vocal genres of opera, cantata and oratorio, Italy was the principal source of instrumental ensemble music throughout the 17th century. The development of the two major new instrumental genres of the Baroque - the sonata and the concerto - was largely the work of Italian composers. The violinist Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713) was perhaps the most gifted and influential of the pioneer composers of concertos and sonatas. His 12 Concerti Grossi (1714) established the form of the concerto grosso and were imitated all over Europe. While Corelli's output was relatively small and limited to instrumental compositions, his later compatriots, the composer-priest Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741) and Tommaso Albinoni (1671-1750) wrote prodigious amounts of instrumental and vocal music. But Vivaldi is chiefly known for his development of the solo concerto: his set of violin concertos known as The Four Seasons - representing but four concertos out of an output of more than 460 - has become perhaps the best known of all Baroque compositions. The publication of many of Vivaldi's concertos in his own lifetime enabled their influence to spread throughout Europe, and their three-movement structure became a model for many composers of concertos, including Johann Sebastian Bach.
In contrast with his sonatas and concertos, Vivaldi's many operas have never been successfully revived. A similar fate has befallen the 115 extant operas of the prolific Neapolitan Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725; see also p. 584). One of Scarlatti's important innovations was the three-movement form of the Italian opera overture or sinfonia, regarded by many as being the earliest forerunner of the Classical symphony. The new freedom of expression Scarlatti imported to opera was given to harpsichord music by his son Domenico Scarlatti (1685-1757). The younger Scarlatti's 550 single-movement sonatas for harpsichord considerably extended the technical and musical possibilities of keyboard writing.
* WHAT IS MUSIC?
* PLAINSONG AND POLYPHONY
* CLASSICAL MUSIC
* THE SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA AND ITS INSTRUMENTS
* OPERA
* CLASSICAL BALLET
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Music of the Baroque (page 2)
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Johann Sebastian Bach. Bach's compositions reflect the demands of the posts he occupied. When in service to the church he produced church cantatas, motets, organ works and chorales, while in service at court in Weimar and Cothen he composed chamber and orchestral works. His religious pieces were inspired by his devout Protestant beliefs.
Music of the Baroque (2 of 3)
France
In France, as in England and Germany, composers were strongly influenced by Italian models of instrumental music. However, the greatest achievements of the French Baroque were in the domain of harpsichord music and opera.
The Italian-born Frenchman Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632-87) established the form of the French opera which was to reach its peak in the operas of Jean-Philippe Rameau. The overtures and dance movements from Lully's operas enjoyed a flourishing life outside the operatic context. So-called French overtures on the Lullian model were used by Handel in some of his operas and oratorios, and became an integral part of the Baroque orchestral suite. Stylized dance movements such as the minuet and the allemande, as well as being central to the suite, were also sometimes incorporated in concertos.
Louis Couperin (c. 1626-61) - the first significant member of a famous musical dynasty - has left a tantalizingly small body of works for harpsichord and organ, distinguished by passion, invention and harmonic daring. Francois Couperin ('Le Grand'; 1668-1733) composed in a wider range of genres than his uncle, but is best known for his elegant harpsichord pieces, many of which bear fanciful titles and characterize people or objects.
The early career of Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683-1764) was dominated by harpsichord composition and the writing of influential treatises on harmony, but he was to enjoy a second and highly successful career as a composer of opera.
Germany
The German composer Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) is held by many to be the greatest of all Baroque composers, though it was not until after his death that his stature was recognized. In his concertos, sonatas, cantatas and keyboard music, Bach took to a summit of achievement the forms that had developed in Italy during the 17th century. Johann Sebastian was the most distinguished of a vast family of musical Bachs, but in his lifetime he was a provincial composer whose highest aspiration was to become organist and choirmaster of St Thomas's Church in Leipzig. He never journeyed outside his homeland, but was nevertheless aware of musical trends elsewhere, as his French Suites and Italian Concerto for harpsichord testify. Lutheran hymn tunes were a further influence on his style, whose components included (particularly in his instrumental music) an exhilarating use of rhythmic syncopation, along with an unrivaled grasp of counterpoint that was later to prove an inspiration to such composers as Mozart, Beethoven and Mendelssohn. To suggest that Bach's music is 'dry' or 'intellectual' is to misunderstand its remarkable range of emotions - the latter being particularly evident in his great choral works inspired by Christ's Passion and in his Mass in B minor for soloists, chorus and orchestra.
A number of Bach's many sons were also distinguished composers. The symphonies and concertos of Carl Phillip Emanuel Bach (1714-88) show a reaction against his father's polyphony and counterpoint, while in his sonatas can be detected the growth of the thematic treatment of different keys, which was to develop into Classical sonata form. The London-based Johann Christian Bach (1735-82), a composer of operas and symphonies in a 'galant', pre-Classical style, was an influence on the young Mozart.
Posterity has accorded Georg Phillipp Telemann (1681-1767) a lowlier status than his friends Bach and Handel. But Telemann's exalted reputation during his own lifetime is attested by the fact that he, rather than Bach, was first choice for the post of choirmaster in Leipzig eventually offered to Bach. Telemann absorbed all of the principal compositional styles of the period and wrote with astonishing fecundity in all of the principal genres of the Baroque. While he only rarely achieved the sublimity of Bach or Handel, Telemann wrote with a keen sense of the possibilities of individual instruments, and his music - especially his concertos and orchestral suites - is distinguished by engaging melody and buoyant rhythms.
* WHAT IS MUSIC?
* PLAINSONG AND POLYPHONY
* CLASSICAL MUSIC
* THE SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA AND ITS INSTRUMENTS
* OPERA
* CLASSICAL BALLET
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Music of the Baroque (page 3)
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George Frideric Handel, indefatigable composer of Italian opera, and inventor of the English oratorio, painted by Thomas Hudson in 1749. Handel is here shown clutching the score of Messiah, his most famous and popular oratorio, the first version of which he composed in the space of three weeks in the summer of 1741. (University Library, Hamburg/Archiv fer Kunst)
Music of the Baroque (3 of 3)
England
Like Mozart, Henry Purcell (1659-95) was a composer of genius whose early death has deprived us of a potentially even greater body of masterpieces. In his odes, theater music, church music, string fantasias and sonatas Purcell's style combines a sublime gift for melody, harmonic invention and a mastery of counterpoint. His best-known work - and for some his greatest achievement - is the miniature opera Dido and Aeneas, though his incidental music for a hack version of Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream - entitled The Fairy Queen (1692) - similarly achieves passionate musical expression that transcends the doggerel of the words.
The greatest composer working in England during the late Baroque was the German-born George Frideric Handel (1685-1759). Impresario, musical director, virtuoso keyboard player and sought-after teacher, as well as composer, Handel was a more cosmopolitan and worldly figure than his great German contemporary, Bach. He left his native Saxony, traveling first to Hamburg (to become a violinist in the opera orchestra), then to Italy (where he met Corelli and Alessandro Scarlatti and became deeply imbued with Italian styles of vocal and instrumental writing), and finally to London, where he settled and took British nationality.
Handel's music combines the Italian solo and instrumental style, German counter point and the English choral tradition he encountered in Purcell. Out of these, in his operas, oratorios, concertos and suites, he created a brilliant, highly individual style of writing, which, while in essence a stylistic hybrid, is completely and triumphantly his own.
As befitted a man who spent the bulk of his career as a composer of Italian operas (now rarely performed), Handel was at heart a dramatic composer. Deep humanity and a gift for perceptive and sympathetic characterization permeates all his vocal writing - be it solo cantata, opera or oratorio. But the opera-composer's aptitude for beguiling and expressive melody reveals itself also in his concertos, sonatas and suites. When the Italian opera went into a decline in London, Handel turned his attention to a genre - the English oratorio - which he had first experimented with 20 years earlier, and which he now brought to its first, and greatest, flowering. Of his numerous oratorios, Messiah (1741) has always held pride of place, at the expense, sadly, of his other masterpieces in the form, notably Saul (1739), Solomon (1748) and Jephtha (1751).
MUSICAL FORMS OF THE BAROQUE
CONCERTO
A work for one or more solo instruments and orchestra, usually in three movements following a quick-slow-quick pattern also employed by later composers. Bach's concertos, mostly for harpsichord or violin (though the so-called Brandenburg Concertos of 1721 used a more intricate array of instruments) were among the greatest of the Baroque period.
CONCERTO GROSSO
Grosso in Italian means 'great' or 'big'. A concerto grosso incorporates an interplay between a large body of instruments and a smaller one, each group usually consisting of strings, though sometimes with wind players also. Corelli and Handel were two of the greatest exponents of the form.
CANTATA
From the Italian word cantare, 'to sing', this is a vocal work with solo voices or chorus (or sometimes a combination of both), accompanied by a solo instrument or orchestra. Bach's numerous cantatas were mostly written for church services, while Alessandro Scarlatti and Handel were both prolific exponents of the secular cantata.
FUGUE
A contrapuntal composition - instrumental, orchestral or choral - written in two or more 'parts' or voices, at the start of which the voices enter successively in imitation of each other and are subsequently combined with varying degrees of intricacy (the word is from the Italian 'fuga', meaning 'running away' or 'flight'). Canons and rounds are simpler, earlier forms of the fugue.
SONATA
From the Italian suonare, 'to sound or play an instrument', the sonata developed from its 16th-century origins into a major musical form, employing one or more solo instruments and structured usually in three or more movements. Bach's most famous sonatas are those for violin, either unaccompanied or with basso continuo. A trio sonata was so called because the composer wrote the music in three parts (two solo instruments - usually violins - and basso continuo), although four players usually participated in the performance if the bass notes were to be underlined by a cello.
SUITE
A work consisting of a group of dance movements, usually in the same key. The Baroque suite was refined from earlier models by harpsichord composers such as the Frenchman Jacques Champion de Chambonnieres (c. 1602-72 and the German Johann Jacob Froberger (1616-67). Bach's French Suites for harpsichord (c. 1722) are typical examples of the genre, expanding the traditional sequence of allemande-courante-sarabande-gigue with 'galant' French movements such as minuets and gavottes. French composers such as Rameau and Francois Couperin often gave the movements of their suites (or 'orders' in Couperin's case) fanciful or evocative titles. Orchestral suites were written by Bach, Handel and Telemann, amongst others. Handel's Water Music (composed c. 1715 for a royal boat trip on the Thames) is one of the best-known examples.
ORATORIO
An unstaged dramatic composition, usually on a biblical theme, for soloists, chorus and orchestra, which was developed in Italy by composers such as Giacomo Carissimi (1605-74). Important composers of oratorio were: in Germany, Heinrich Schetz (1585-1672) and Bach; in France, Marc-Antoine Charpentier (1634-1704); and in England, Handel, whose works in the genre were characterized by extensive and flexible use of the chorus.
* WHAT IS MUSIC?
* PLAINSONG AND POLYPHONY
* CLASSICAL MUSIC
* THE SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA AND ITS INSTRUMENTS
* OPERA
* CLASSICAL BALLET
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The Classical Period (page 1)
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Mozart at the age of 6 at the court of the Empress Maria Theresa and her son, the future Emperor Joseph II. Although Mozart had a huge success as a child prodigy, as an adult he had continual financial difficulties, and was finally buried in an unmarked pauper's grave.
The Classical Period (1 of 3)
If the music of J.S. Bach represents the summit of the Baroque era, that of his sons, particularly Carl Philip Emanuel and Johann Christian, provides a link with the period loosely known as Classical. It was a time of new developments in the art of the symphony and concerto, of the birth of the string quartet and piano sonata, and of the humanizing of opera.
Vienna, the capital of the Austrian Habsburg Empire, now became the center of musical progress, with Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809), Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-91) and, before long, Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) as its principal representatives. In the next generation Franz Schubert (1797-1828) was to sustain Vienna's musical pre-eminence. Both Beethoven and Schubert were to extend the Classical forms and infuse them with a Romantic sensibility. All four composers collectively became known as the First Viennese School (for the Second Viennese School).
By 1790 Haydn and Mozart were both resident in Vienna. The Salzburg-born Mozart had settled there in 1781 after a quarrel with his employer, the Archbishop of Salzburg, while Haydn had only just arrived after his retirement at the age of 58 from the post of resident composer with the Esterhazy family. At the palace of Esterhaza, Haydn had had the privacy to work in peace ('There was nobody near to confuse me, so I was forced to become original', he once declared) - yet he was famed throughout Europe. Beethoven, born in Bonn in Germany, did not make Vienna his home until two years later, by which time Mozart was dead at the age of 35. However, Haydn was to become (briefly and none too happily) his teacher.
Classicism in music
Classicism, in musical terms, has been defined as a style accepting certain basic conventions of form and structure, and using these as a natural framework for the expression of ideas. Unlike Romantic music, which developed out of Classicism, it saw no need to break the set boundaries, although in a discreet way its greatest practitioners did so more often than not.
Only in pedantic hands did Classicism lead to rigidity of structure. Its strength derived from the ability of composers to concentrate the intensity of their inspiration within a formal framework, and to express themselves with clarity through the use of moderate resources. The Classical period also saw the development of the symphony - and thereby the symphony orchestra - as a vehicle for well-argued musical discourse.
* ROCOCO AND NEOCLASSICISM (VISUAL ARTS)
* WHAT IS MUSIC?
* MUSIC OF THE BAROQUE
* MUSIC OF THE ROMANTICS
* THE SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA AND ITS INSTRUMENTS
* OPERA
* CLASSICISM IN LITERATURE
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The Classical Period (page 2)
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Rehearsing a cantata in around 1775.
The Classical Period (2 of 3)
The symphony
The word symphony derives from the Greek word for 'consonance' (i.e. pleasing harmony). In the Baroque period the symphony tended to be no more than a prelude or interlude (such as the 'Pastoral Symphony' in Handel's Messiah). But out of the three-section form of many operatic overtures (or sinfonias) came the basic structure of what was subsequently to establish itself as the self-sufficient symphony, intended for concert performance.
The three short, usually interconnected movements grew in scale and became more clearly separated from each other; in due course a fourth movement was added. The Classical symphony orchestra was somewhat larger than Bach's orchestra, although less expansive than those of the later Romantics. It drew extra color from the woodwind family (usually pairs of flutes, oboes, bassoons and the then novel clarinets), from horns, and from the 'pompous' combination of trumpets and kettledrums. Most of these instruments had already been employed by Bach and Handel, but not normally together.
Haydn, with his own orchestra and a benevolent patron at Esterhaza, was ideally placed to perfect symphonic form the way he wished. In the end he produced more than a hundred symphonies remarkable for their resourcefulness, terseness of structure (whole movements often growing out of a single theme), and harmonic and rhythmic verve enchanced by warmth of expression.
But elsewhere, too, the symphony was spreading like wildfire. At Mannheim, the presence of an outstanding orchestra had resulted in the founding of the 'Mannheim School' of composers - including Johann Stamitz (1717-57) and his son Karl (1745-1801). These composers established brilliant scale passages ('Mannheim rockets') as a symphonic feature, along with startling contrasts between soft and loud, and pioneered the disciplined orchestral crescendo and decrescendo (increases and decreases in volume).
The young Mozart, on a visit to Mannheim, benefited from what he heard there. Mozart also reacted in his own way to the 'Paris style', with its fashionable premier coup d'archet (the arresting bowstroke signalling the start of a symphony), which he encountered during his visit to France in 1778 and commemorated in his Paris symphony (no. 31 in D).
More important than symphonic gestures such as the coup d'archet, however, was the actual structure of the symphony. Although this structure seems rigid, the Classical symphony nevertheless gave composers considerable scope for self-expression, as a comparison between the somber passion of Mozart's 40th symphony and the Olympian purity of the 41st (the Jupiter) makes plain. The last 6 of Mozart's 41 symphonies, and the last 12 of Haydn's 104, represent the summit of the Classical style. Beethoven, in his 9 symphonies, built on the work of his predecessors, but was to extend the form considerably in scale and take it into the beginnings of the Romantic era, as was Schubert in the last 2 (the Unfinished and the Great C major) of his 9 symphonies.
Beethoven in middle age, a copy of Stieler's somewhat idealized 1819 portrait. Unlike Mozart, who would compose all the details of complete movements in his head before writing them down, composition for Beethoven was always a struggle, involving frequent revisions of his original sketches.
The Classical Period (3 of 3)
Other forms
But what was achieved symphonically at this time was also reflected in the progress of the concerto, the string quartet (with its offshoots, the string trio and quintet), the piano trio and the piano sonata. Mozart, on leaving the security of Salzburg, found himself living by his wits in Vienna as the world's first major 'freelance' composer. Up to that point composers generally worked full time either for a wealthy patron or the Church. As a freelance, Mozart attempted to earn money by giving public subscription concerts, the first of their kind, incorporating new piano concertos written for himself (or star pupils) to play. But if the initiative was commercial, the works themselves (particularly the last dozen) were epoch-making, achieving a perfection that was only to be equaled by Beethoven.
What Mozart achieved on behalf of the concerto, Haydn (and, under his influence, Mozart also) did for the string quartet, entrusting a group of four players (two violinists, a viola player and a cellist) with his most intimate musical thoughts. Haydn wrote sets of quartets all his life, and these sublime instrumental conversation-pieces now form the basis of the quartet repertoire, along with those of Mozart, Beethoven and Schubert. Haydn's piano trios, too, set a standard other composers could emulate but never surpass, and his keyboard sonatas, along with Mozart's, paved the way for Beethoven's 32 unparalleled masterpieces in the form.
Church music was also an important part of a Classical composer's workload, just as it was in Bach's and Handel's time. To their Masses and other choral works, Haydn and Mozart brought a distinctively Austrian flavor that was at times almost operatic, quite different from those of Bach. But then - thanks to Mozart - opera itself had changed personality.
CLASSICAL STRUCTURES
The three-movement (fast - slow - fast) concerto had already been established in the Baroque period, and in the Classical period the sonata for one or two solo instruments typically had a similar three-movement structure. The Classical symphony, however, had four movements, each of which employed one of the prevailing structural forms of the day: a first movement in sonata form (with or without a slow introduction), a slow movement either similarly structured or perhaps in variation form, a minuet and trio, and a final rondo. These structural forms were also utilized in sonatas, concertos and other types of work.
SONATA FORM
Sonata form (so called because it was commonly used for the first movements of sonatas) was an elaboration of the 'rounded binary' form found in the more extended Baroque suite movements. Like these movements, the sonata-form movement proceeded from the tonic key to the dominant (or relative major, if it was a minor-key movement), then, after a double bar and a repeat of all the music so far, passed through several more remote keys before presenting again all the material before the double bar, but without the key change - so that the movement ended in the tonic.
The section before the double bar was later termed the exposition, its recurrence without change of key the recapitulation, and the part in between the development. There was usually a theme or motive of strong character at the beginning, and sometimes other themes and episodes marked the successive stages. These successive stages consisted of the 'transition' (the passage during which the key changed) - if there was one - the section in the dominant key, the 'closing' section (which rounded off the exposition), and even the development. Occasionally (quite often in Beethoven) there was an extra passage at the end called a coda. The most notable feature of the sonata style was its sectionality: the tendency for each small part to be rounded off with a cadence, and to be distinguished from its surroundings by contrasts of texture and mood.
THEME AND VARIATIONS
A theme and variations offered the opportunity to concentrate on all the melodic, harmonic, rhythmic and decorative possibilities of a theme (usually, though not necessarily, heard at the outset). A good example is the slow movement of Haydn's Surprise symphony, which wittily uses a nursery tune as its inspiration.
MINUET AND TRIO
The minuet and trio, usually intended to add light relief, used the old French dance-meter as the basis of a simple three-section structure, in which a minuet led to a contrasted trio section (so called because originally employing fewer players) and then to an abbreviated repeat of the minuet. Sometimes the format was extended to include two trio sections, and ultimately it gave way to the scherzo and trio, pioneered by Haydn and perfected by Beethoven, which employed the same 3/4 beat at a usually considerably faster tempo. This resulted in greater musical excitement, and also provided opportunities - if desired - for heightened humor (scherzo is Italian for 'joke').
RONDO
The rondo could also be employed to witty and often brilliant effect. Its essential idea was the periodic recurrence of the main theme, interspersed with contrasted episodes. Essentially clear-cut, rondo form could be made more intricate by being combined with sonata form, the resultant hybrid being identified as a sonata-rondo.
* ROCOCO AND NEOCLASSICISM (VISUAL ARTS)
* WHAT IS MUSIC?
* MUSIC OF THE BAROQUE
* MUSIC OF THE ROMANTICS
* THE SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA AND ITS INSTRUMENTS
* OPERA
* CLASSICISM IN LITERATURE
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Music of the Romantics (page 1)
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An 1846 caricature of Berlioz conducting his own music. One aspect of 19th-century Romanticism was the growth in the number and range of instruments in the symphony orchestra.
Although Berlioz was lampooned for the overwhelming volume of his orchestral effects, some of the finest moments in his music are achieved with quiet subtlety.
Music of the Romantics (1 of 3)
Music of the Romantics
Romanticism in music was not necessarily born in 1800. But the first year of the 19th century, when Beethoven had just produced the first of his nine symphonies, is as good a time as any by which to commemorate the establishment of composers as individual artists - rather than as servants of rich patrons, which had been the case throughout the Baroque and Classical periods.
Mozart had pointed the way by provoking the Archbishop of Salzburg into dismissing him, and later by composing (purely for himself) his 40th symphony, a work of dark and passionate Romanticism, albeit within a Classical format. His opera, Don Giovanni, with its swashbuckling but doomed hero, provided another pointer. Significantly it was this more than any other 18th-century masterpiece that fired the Romantic 19th-century imagination by demonstrating how it was possible to break the bounds of 18th-century formality.
Beethoven and the beginnings of Romanticism
So when in 1800 Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827; see also pp. 574-5) produced not only his first symphony (which in size and appearance seemed quite Mozartian but had the explosiveness of a time bomb) but also his C minor piano concerto (which had a startling assertiveness absent from his two previous works in the form), it was clear that winds of change were sweeping through music in Vienna. This was confirmed in 1803 by the unleashing of the Eroica symphony, originally intended by Beethoven to be a homage to Napoleon. This in itself was a Romantic act - Napoleon for a time being regarded as the champion of republican liberty - just as was the composer's subsequent decision to delete Napoleon's name when the French general declared himself emperor. But the special achievement of the Eroica, Beethoven's third symphony, was that it finally shattered the bounds of Classicism. It was not only the biggest symphony ever written until that time (though Beethoven himself was to surpass it in his ninth), it was also recognized to be a personal testament in music, the first of its kind, symbolizing Beethoven's battle with the growing deafness that was to destroy his career as a public performer, but which intensified his inspiration as a composer. Beethoven has been called the 'poet of heroism', a title to which his fifth symphony and his solitary opera, Fidelio, as well as the Eroica bear tribute. The idea of a symphony beginning ominously in C minor and ending triumphantly in C major was a symbol of Romanticism in music, emulated 70 years later by Brahms in his first symphony. The crucial role played by Beethoven in the progress of symphonic form, and of the art of the string quartet and piano sonata, was something no later composer could ignore. In his last quartets in particular, Beethoven explored the most profound emotional and spiritual tensions with a musical daring not seen again for another century. In Italy, Verdi slept with Beethoven's quartets by his bedside. In France, Hector Berlioz (1803-69) stated Beethoven to be a primary influence on his style. In Germany, the symphonic structure employed by Richard Wagner (1813-83) in his music dramas had Beethoven's ninth symphony as source.
Literary influence
But apart from inspiring autobiographical symphonies (such as Berlioz's Symphonie fantastique; see below), and heroic concertos such as Beethoven's so-called Emperor (1809), in which soloist and orchestra were often deemed to be opponents rather than partners, the age of Romanticism also increased the influence of literature on music.
Beethoven's An die ferne Geliebte ('To the Distant Beloved', 1816) was the first song cycle of importance, paving the way for Die schone Mellerin ('The Beautiful Maid of the Mill', 1823) and Winterreise ('Winter Journey', 1827) by Franz Schubert (1797-1828; see also pp. 574-5), the most gifted and one of the most prolific of all song writers. The art of the song cycle, which required songs to be grouped in a particular order and to possess some specific literary theme, was nourished in Germany after Schubert's early death by Robert Schumann (1810-56) in his Dichterliebe ('Poet's Love') and Frauenliebe und -Leben ('Woman's Love and Life'), both written in 1840, and by Berlioz in his exquisite Nuits d'utu, ('Summer Nights', 1841).
Though composers of the period were often attracted to high-quality texts - Berlioz, a highly literary composer, chose The[ac]ophile Gautier's poetry for his Nuits d'utu, Schumann chose Heinrich Heine for Dichterliebe - great songs were not necessarily dependent on great poetry for their inspiration. Schubert, through his music, raised minor verse to the level of Goethe. Wagner wrote his own operatic texts, employing alliteration to bring flow and cohesion to such works as Tristan and Isolde and The Ring.
* ROMANTICISM (IN PAINTING)
* THE CLASSICAL PERIOD
* MODERNISTS AND OTHERS
* THE SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA AND ITS INSTRUMENTS
* OPERA
* FOLK MUSIC
* CLASSICAL BALLET
* ROMANTICISM (IN LITERATURE)
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Music of the Romantics (page 2)
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Brahms at the piano. Encouraged as a young man by Schumann, Brahms was deeply upset by Schumann's madness and death. His distress was increased by his awareness that he was in love with Schumann's wife Clara. However, he suppressed his love, and later cultivated the image of a gruff old bachelor.
Richard Wagner (center) with his wife Cosima and her father Franz Liszt. While still married to the conductor Hans von Below, Cosima had a child by Wagner, and subsequently eloped with him. The unconventionality of Wagner'sprivate life was matched by the unconventionality of his music, and both attracted moral censure.
Music of the Romantics (2 of 3)
Program music
Inevitably, the 'composer as artist' was also attracted to representational or 'program music' - music that evokes pictorial scenes or finds some way to tell a story in purely musical terms.
As early as 1808, Beethoven wrote his Pastoral symphony, describing its often quite precise imagery rather cautiously as 'the expression of feelings rather than painting'. His E flat piano sonata (opus 81a) of the following year was also an expression of feelings; its three movements were entitled 'Farewell', 'Absence' and 'Return', the sonata being dedicated to the Archduke Rudolph on his departure from Vienna during the siege by Napoleon's troops. But that Beethoven's piano music often seemed to evoke pictures, in a way that Haydn's or Mozart's did not, cannot be denied - hence, for example, the nickname Moonlight given by a critic to Beethoven's C sharp minor piano sonata.
In Germany, Felix Mendelssohn (1809-47), in such works as The Hebrides (1830-32) and his Scottish and Italian symphonies, evoked landscapes within conventional forms, while Schumann - a great champion of the new Romantic style - evoked scenes of sentiment, chivalry and humor in his piano music.
More significant in terms of breaking traditional formal boundaries was the piano music of Fruduric Chopin (1810-49), a Pole who settled in France. Chopin's nocturnes, ballads, mazurkas, polonaises, preludes, studies, waltzes and scherzos, inspired all sorts of poetic responses in their listeners, although Chopin himself, it is true, seldom supplied these pieces with 'programs', and indeed, as his sonatas disclose, he was a far more rigorous composer than he has been given credit for. Bach, rather than raindrops, was the source of his 24 preludes, Op 28, though the undeniable 'poetry' of his music and of his performance of it in fashionable French salons - along with the fact that he was tubercular - was bound to enhance his reputation in Romantic terms.
Berlioz's Symphonie fantastique (1830) contained a far more deliberate 'program', each movement depicting a scene from a tragic imaginary love affair, inspired by Berlioz's own unhappy love affair with the actress Harriet Smithson. However, it was Ferencz or Franz Liszt (1811-86) who developed the art of program music into a heavy industry. Born in Hungary, Liszt subsequently toured all over Europe as a hugely popular piano virtuoso. Liszt coined the term symphonic poem for his series of 13 descriptive orchestral works, each written in a single 'symphonic' movement, and also wrote numerous piano pieces inspired by poems, paintings and places (his collections of Annees des pelerinage, or 'Years of Pilgrimage', being specially notable). Like Wagner, whose music he conducted and did much to publicize, Liszt was a believer in what he called 'the music of the future'. Through his symphonic poems, and above all through his single-movement piano sonata in B minor (1852-53), he developed the idea of musical metamorphosis, whereby the transformations of a single theme, through changes of tempo, rhythm, contour and harmony, could form the argument of an entire piece. Some of Liszt's later piano pieces, such as Nuages gris ('Grey Clouds', 1881), proved far-reaching in their harmonic innovation, and possessed an austerity of utterance far different from the flamboyance of his early and middle years.
Nationalism in music
The rise of nationalist feeling all over Europe in the 19th century inspired many Romantic artists, including composers. Although Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsodies lacked Hungarian authenticity (in that Liszt mistook gypsy music for Hungarian folk music), nationalism in music was becoming a major force.
Folk rhythms, folk dances, folk songs, folk legends and folk harmonies served as important sources of inspiration to such composers as Bedrich Smetana (1824-84) and Antonin Dvorak (1841-1904) in what is now the Czech Republic, Edvard Grieg (1843-1907) in Norway, and Mily Balakirev (1837-1910), Modest Musorgsky (1839-81) and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-93) in Russia. These composers often employed nationalist subjects for their operas (Smetana's Dalibor and Musorgsky's Boris Godunov being examples), while their symphonic works, particularly Tchaikovsky's first four, gained an intensity and identity of their own by combining recognizably nationalistic coloring with the established structural procedures of the German mainstream.
* ROMANTICISM (IN PAINTING)
* THE CLASSICAL PERIOD
* MODERNISTS AND OTHERS
* THE SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA AND ITS INSTRUMENTS
* OPERA
* FOLK MUSIC
* CLASSICAL BALLET
* ROMANTICISM (IN LITERATURE)
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Music of the Romantics (page 3)
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Richard Wagner's unconventional music was matched by his unconventional private life, both of which attracted moral censure. He eloped with Cosima von Below, the daughter of Franz Liszt, when she was still married to Hans von Below but carrying Wagner's child.
Music of the Romantics (3 of 3)
Wagner, Brahms and after
But that mainstream itself was undergoing change. On the one hand Wagner was abandoning all constraints of scale and conventional musical structure in his vast music dramas. In these complex tapestries of interwoven themes he built on Liszt's ideas of metamorphosis, and cultivated tonal chromaticism - the frequent introduction of notes foreign to the key of the music. On the other hand, composers such as Berlioz in France and Johannes Brahms (1833-97) in Germany were exploring the tensions arising from containing Romantic emotions within strict Classical structures. It was inevitable that Brahms and Wagner in their time were considered to represent opposite musical poles, and that listeners (encouraged by the critic Eduard Hanslick, who favored Brahms) tended to take sides.
In the long term, however, it was Wagner who proved the major influence. The nine symphonies of the Austrian Anton Bruckner (1824-96) employ Wagnerian harmony yet have roots in Schubert's Great C major symphony (1825), an Austrian masterpiece written on a similarly spacious scale. Wagner and Schubert also provided the foundations of the ten symphonies (the last unfinished)of Bruckner's fellow-Austrian Gustav Mahler (1860-1911), who exploited elements of anguish and ecstasy beyond anything previously attempted in symphonic music, and in his later works there are strong premonitions of the chaos and uncertainty that the new century was to bring. In Germany, Richard Strauss (1864-1949) absorbed aspects of both Liszt and Wagner into his operas and symphonic poems, though some of his works, particularly his opera, Der Rosenkavalier (1911), reveal a degree of Mozartian nostalgia. At heart Strauss remained a life-long Romantic: a year before he died in 1949, he wrote his Four Last Songs for soprano and orchestra, an almost unbearably poignant farewell. However, it was Wagner's tendency towards atonality rather than his high Romanticism that was at the root of mainstream musical development in the 20th century.
The Schoenberg family portrayed in appropriately Expressionist style by the Austrian painter Richard Gerstl. Gerstl killed himself in 1908 after running off with Schoenberg's wife. (Museum der 20 Jahrhunderts, Vienna/Austrian Embassy, London)
Modernists and others (1 of 3)
If the decades surrounding 1800 were an important period in the development of Romanticism in music, those around 1900 marked the beginnings of Modernism. Wagner's Tristan and Isolde (1865) was the German fountainhead, with Debussy's Pelluas and Mulisande (1902) as its French counterpart. From these two operas, the major trends in 20th-century music all flowed.
Modernism in music - as in the visual arts and literature - involved a radical break with existing conventions. It also involved what often appears as a greater distancing between the artist and audience - certainly audiences in all the arts have tended to find Modernist works 'difficult'. However, although Modernism has been at the intellectual forefront of music in the 20th century, many composers have followed more accessible paths.
The Second Viennese School
Wagner's chromaticism had a powerful influence on the young Austrian composer Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951). In early works such as Verklarte Nacht ('Transfigured Night') for string sextet (1899), the ties of conventional tonality begin to be loosened, a process continued by Schoenberg and his disciples Alban Berg (1885-1935) and Anton Webern (1883-1945), and these three formed what has become known as the Second Viennese School (for the First Viennese School).
The music of Schoenberg and his German and Austrian contemporaries is sometimes described as 'Expressionist'. This term (also used in painting ) is particularly applicable to works such as Schoenberg's Erwartung ('Waiting', 1909) for soprano and vast orchestra, which displays the nightmarish despair of a woman awaiting an absent lover who may or may not be dead. Schoenberg's Pierrot Lunaire (1912) and Berg's operas Wozzeck (1922) and Lulu (1935; see also p. 585) are also archetypically Expressionist, and the expressive force of Pierrot Lunaire and Wozzeck is devastatingly reinforced by the use of Sprechgesang ('speech song'), in which notes are half-sung, half-spoken.
However, Schoenberg himself was to move away from Expressionism towards a more sparingly written, abstract music, and by the 1920s he had formulated dode caphony, or twelve-note music, a method of composition whereby all 12 notes within the octave (the 7 white and 5 black keys on a piano keyboard) are treated as equals, with no chords or groups of notes dominating as in conventional harmony. Dodecaphony was to be employed by many later composers in the 20th century, although Schoenberg himself used it far less rigorously after the 1920s.
Similarly sparingly written and epigrammatic was the music of Webern, who also adopted dodecaphic techniques. Webern's influence, through his extraordinarily compressed chamber symphony (1924), Chamber Concerto (1934) and sets of tiny yet intense, at times even fierce, orchestral pieces, Op 6 and 10 (1910 and 1913), has been profound.
* MODERN ART
* MUSIC OF THE ROMANTICS
* MUSIC SINCE 1945
* OPERA
* CLASSICAL BALLET
* MODERN DANCE
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND MODERNISM (LITERATURE)
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Modernists and Others (page 2)
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Claude Debussy, one of the key figures in the birth of musical Modernism. In 1913 he declared, 'A century of airplanes deserves its own music. As there are no precedents, I must create anew.'
Modernists and others (2 of 3)
Debussy and the French
Claude Debussy (1862-1918), although admiring Wagner's achievement, regarded him as a dead end - he once referred to him as 'that old poisoner'. Compared to Schoenberg's Erwartung, the fastidiously pared down music of Debussy's Pelluas and Mulisande transforms a similarly dreamlike subject almost into an anti-opera from which anything as vulgar as a melody has been ruthlessly excluded. The action - in essence a triangular drama about two half-brothers involved with the same woman - may take place on the stage, where Debussy's setting of Maurice Maeterlinck's Symbolist play does nothing to demystify the ambiguities of the story; but what gives this masterpiece its cool yet extraordinary intensity is what goes on in the orchestra pit.
Debussy's sense of instrumental color, whether pure or misty, was what earned him his 'impressionist' label - much to his annoyance, critics characterized him as a musical equivalent of Claude Monet. Many of Debussy's works, such as his three orchestral Nocturnes (1901) and his piano preludes, had visual associations, but poetry - particularly that of Symbolists such as Mallarmu, - also influenced Debussy and his fellow French composers, Gabriel Fauru (1845-1924) and Maurice Ravel (1875-1937). Although Fauru is best known today for his Requiem (1887), he was to develop more modern idioms, and both he and Ravel wrote exquisite songs as well as sharing Debussy's delight in instrumental color. This was particularly so of Ravel in works such as Rapsodie espagnole (1907), La Valse (1920) and Bolero (1928), although later works such as his two piano concertos (1931) show a sparer, more ironic approach. The strain of ironic playfulness detectable in some of the music of these French composers is also apparent in smaller-scale works, such as the piano miniatures of Erik Satie (1866- 1925) and the output of his six disciples - nicknamed Les Six, and including Francis Poulenc (1899-1963) and Darius Milhaud (1892-1974). The work of Les Six was produced during the aftermath of, and in reaction to, World War I.
Satie, whose choice of titles (e.g. 'Three Pear-shaped Pieces') caused him to be dismissed as an eccentric, has proved more durable than was initially expected. His Vexations (1893), an early example of what came to be known as 'minimalism', required a few bars of music to be repeated 840 times over a period of a whole day. Dadaism, the movement that had invaded French visual arts with its irrationality and irreverence, found in Satie its musical champion; yet the third of his three Gymnopedies (1888) is adored by listeners everywhere not because it is irrational but simply because it is an exquisite, haunting melody, unpredictably harmonized.
* MODERN ART
* MUSIC OF THE ROMANTICS
* MUSIC SINCE 1945
* OPERA
* CLASSICAL BALLET
* MODERN DANCE
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND MODERNISM (LITERATURE)
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Modernists and Others (page 3)
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Igor Stravinsky rehearsing for a concert. Like the painter Pablo Picasso, Stravinsky's long career was marked by numerous changes of style and a continual delight in innovation.
Modernists and others (3 of 3)
Stravinsky and Bartk
Debussy's rhythmic intricacy and progressive ideas on harmony, as well as his extraordinary sense of timbre (tone color), proved immensely influential, not only on French composers but on others also. The Russian-born Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971) and the Hungarian Bela Bartk (1881-1945) were major figures of 20th-century music who came under his spell. The opening notes of Stravinsky's sensational ballet, The Rite of Spring (1913), have their roots in Debussy's Prelude a l'apres-midi d'un faune (1894), even if the bludgeoning rhythms of the rest of the work do not. Likewise it is possible to hear in Bartk's Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta (1936) the shimmering timbres that had so fascinated Debussy when he encountered an Indonesian gamelan orchestra at the Paris Universal Exhibition in 1889.
Although Stravinsky's changes of style seemed as frequent as his changes of residence (educated in Leningrad, Stravinsky spent a vital part of his career in Paris and ended up, like Schoenberg, in Los Angeles), he can now be seen to have straddled, like nobody else, the 20th century. Stravinsky was acutely aware of, and responsive to, all the modern trends, and capable of transforming them into pure Stravinsky. His changes of direction can all be seen as revelations of different aspects of one and the same formidable mind. First came the blockbuster early ballets for Diaghilev's Ballets Russes - their rich orchestration influenced as much by his fellow-Russian Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov (1844-1908) as by Debussy. Then came Stravinsky's more ascetic 'neoclassical' period represented in the 1920s by Apollon-Musagete and Pulcinella, and these in turn led to his even more pared-down later works such as Movements for piano and orchestra (1959) and the 'pocket' requiem which he entitled Requiem Canticles (1966).
Unlike Stravinsky, Bartk was to remain in his native Hungary until 1940, when he was forced into unhappy exile in the USA. Bartk's study of Hungarian folk music liberated him from the influence of the German Romantics, and he went on to develop a very individual approach to composition - with sometimes forbid dingly dissonant but always compelling results. His works ranged from exciting orchestral scores to the severe abstractions of piano music such as Mikrokosmos, and his six string quartets were the first to extend the possibilities of the form since Beethoven.
Britain
From all these continental trends, Britain as an island found itself largely - and willingly - shut off. The musical voice of Edward Elgar (1857-1934) was that of his native Worcestershire (of which his Introduction and Allegro for strings, of 1905, is redolent). However, the influence of Schumann and Wagner was strong, and there were times when he seemed to carry the whole weight, the pain and the glory, of Victorian England on his shoulders, as in his two symphonies and concertos, and the touching Enigma Variations
In the music of William Walton (1902-83) a vein of satire flickered sporadically in such works as the Sitwell-inspired Facade (1921), but Walton never lived up to his early promise, and even the dramatic cantata Belshazzar's Feast (1931) - which at the time seemed excitingly modern - now merely sounds noisily provincial. Benjamin Britten (1913-76) was actively prevented as a young man from studying under Alban Berg in Vienna, because it was feared this would do him harm - although he was the one British composer of his period who might have benefited from such exposure. Despite this, Berg's operas, with their psychological concerns, were to prove a major influence on those of Britten, especially Peter Grimes (1945), The Turning of the Screw (1953) and Death in Venice (1973).
Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872-1958), after a brief period in Paris when he flirted with the music of Ravel, returned home to produce the intensely English, often folk-song inspired, music for which he was revered. Each of these composers, like Frederick Delius (1862-1934) and Gustav Holst (1874-1934), succeeded in discovering his own individually English voice, but it was Britten above all who found an idiom, at once English and international, which enabled his music to cross boundaries more freely than that of the others.
Scandinavia
Also set apart from European mainstream was the Finnish composer Jean Sibelius (1865-1957), whose tone poems and seven symphonies possess their own lonely grandeur and integrity. The Dane Carl Nielsen (1865-1931) was another very individual symphonist. His first symphony (1892) was novel in its introduction of 'progressive tonality' (in other words it began in one key and ended in another), while in his fourth (The Inextinguishable) and fifth symphonies a side drum does battle with the orchestra, attempting, unsuccessfully, to drown it out.
America
'Beauty in music is too often confused with something that lets the ears lie back in an easy chair', wrote Charles Ives (1874-1954). Largely ignorant of developments in Europe, in the first two decades of the 20th century Ives was experimenting with note clusters (produced by pressing a piece of wood across the keys of the piano), chance elements and improvisation, and even evolved a form of dodecaphony before rejecting it as 'wall paper design music'. However, he is perhaps best known for his use of multiple orchestras to re-create the sound of his hometown on holidays, when two different bands would be playing different tunes simultaneously.
Although Ives's music was largely ignored by the public during his lifetime, there were other experimenters at work in America in the earlier part of the 20th century, notably Ives's great champion Carl Ruggles (1876-1971), Henry Cowell (1897-1965), and the French-born Edgard Varese (1865-1965). More conventional was the music of Aaron Copland (1900-90), much of it based on American folk idioms; these can be heard particularly in works such as Billy the Kid (1938) and Appalachian Spring (1944). The music of his contemporary, Virgil Thomson (1896- ), was more international in outlook; during his stay in Paris (1925-32) Thomson absorbed influences from Stravinsky and the new French school.
Russia
Before the Revolution, the mystical and voluptuous music of Alexander Skryabin (1872-1915) - who expressed the desire to 'suffocate in ecstasy' - soon proved a dead end. Sergey Rakhmaninov (1873-1943), who spent several years abroad before his final departure from Russia in 1917, was content to exploit his own greatly rewarding vein of Romantic nostalgia.
Far more modernist in spirit was Sergey Prokofiev (1891-1953), who also left Russia during the Revolution and lived in Paris from 1922 until his return to the Soviet Union in 1934. It was left to Prokofiev and Dmitri Shostakovich (1906-75) to compose progressive and individual music conforming with political pressures to produce easily accessible works for the masses. Shostakovich's increasingly bleak and inward-turning music (including 15 symphonies and the same number of string quartets) was a poignant testimony to how compromise could actually be made to work, because, in Shostakovich's case, enforced jollity could never hide the skull beneath the skin.
* MODERN ART
* MUSIC OF THE ROMANTICS
* MUSIC SINCE 1945
* OPERA
* CLASSICAL BALLET
* MODERN DANCE
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND MODERNISM (LITERATURE)
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Music since 1945 (page 1)
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Stockhausen at work in the electronic studios of West German Radio at Cologne in the 1950s. In some of Stockhausen's later pieces the performers are presented not with printed notes but with instructions such as the following:
Think NOTHING
Wait until it is absolutely still within you
When you have attained this
Begin to play . . .
`.Y.Music Since 1945 (1 of 1)
Music since 1945 has evolved in many different ways. For many composers - especially in the 1950s - the once revolutionary twelve-note techniques of Schoenberg became the new orthodoxy, while the avant-garde in the 1960s and 1970s enthusiastically embraced the novel sound possibilities offered by the development of electronic instruments. For a while it seemed as though conventional tonality had been banished from any music aspiring to be 'serious'; indeed tonality still tends to be the exception rather than the rule.
However, the advent of Minimalism in the late 1960s - a movement that came to maturity in the 1980s - saw the restoration of tonality (and even of melody) to respectability, at the same time finding a wider audience for serious music, verging as it does on the fringes of certain developments in jazz and rock. There has also, in recent years, been a decline in interest in electronic music, as the sounds offered by the new medium have become commonplace, rather than strange and exciting. With the reversion to conventional instruments (and voices) there has often come an opening up to influences from further back in the Western musical tradition, and also to influences from non-Western traditions.
To an extent standing aloof from these changes in fashion, certain composers stand out as having identifiably individual voices and styles - even though they themselves are often fathers of movements of one kind or another.
Italy
The Communist Luigi Nono (1924-90) maintained an austere position as Italy's leading guru, with an output uncompromising in its severity, from his opera Intolleranza 1960 onwards. However, it is in the music of Luciano Berio (1925- ) that listeners have recognized a more appealing Italian theatricality, lyricism and sharpness of observation, rooted in Italian musical history from Monteverdi onwards. Berio's works include his Mahler-inspired Sinfonia (1969), his 'recital' entitled Recital (1972) and his sequence of Sequenze for various soloists.
Britain
Standing center-stage in postwar Britain is the music - especially the operas - of Benjamin Britten. More idiosyncratic is the music of Michael Tippett (1905-), whose musical personality derives from a heady mixture of Elizabethan madrigals, Beethoven, Carl Jung and T.S. Eliot, shot through with elements of jazz and pop songs. The result is about as inimitable as Berlioz. In addition to orchestral and chamber works, Tippett has written several operas, including The Midsummer Marriage (1955) and The Knot Garden (1970), and his most recent opera, New Year (1989), has a story (written as always by the composer himself) set in 'Terror Town', where the heroine is a child psychologist, the Belfast Troubles are touched on, the action incorporates a time-traveling spaceship, and the music includes references to reggae.
Tippett's younger compatriot Peter Maxwell Davies (1934- ) has proved similarly open-minded, using parody (of anything from plainsong to foxtrots) as an inspirational device in such audacious pieces of music theater as Vesalii Icones (1969), a darkly sardonic tour of the Stations of the Cross, and Eight Songs for a Mad King (1969), a ferocious portrait of King George III. In recent years, through the influence of the Orkney landscapes and seascapes amid which he now works, Davies's music has grown more romantic and picturesque.
America
Set somewhat apart from the mainstream is the music of Elliott Carter (1908- ), whose music combines romance and high intellectuality. Carter has concentrated on intricately wrought and beautifully fashioned orchestral and chamber music, not invariably abstract (his Symphony of Three Orchestras, written in 1977, was inspired by Hart Crane's poem The Bridge), but demanding the utmost concentration on the part of its performers and listeners. His third string quartet (1971) consists of two elaborate duos, geared to be performed simultaneously, yet independently and at different speeds.
In comparison, John Cage (1912- 92) was a maverick whose musical anarchy had its roots in America's iconoclastic and exhilarating pioneer, Charles Ives.
Cage, a pupil of Schoenberg and Henry Cowell, established the prepared piano, whereby foreign bodies were introduced to the instrument's interior in order to produce new sonorities. Like Ives in his vanguard orchestral piece, The Unanswered Question (1906), Cage was a champion of what was later to be called aleatory music, the performance of which involves a deliberate degree of indeterminacy, or elements of chance, with the result that no two performances are ever the same. Thus Music of Changes (1951), a seminal work, was created by Cage with the help of the I Ching and the tossing of coins. (Mozart and Haydn once made similar experiments, but only in a peripheral way, whereas in Cage's case they grew from a long study of oriental philosophy.) Cage's use of chance elements extended to his interest in electronics, his Imaginary Landscape No 4 (1951) requiring 12 radios to be manipulated by 24 players - each performance depending on what could be heard on local radio stations. But though his HPSCHD (1969) called for seven harpsichordists and 51 or more tape recorders, Cage had by then been succeeded by Stockhausen as the high priest of electronic music.
Germany
Working from West German Radio's studios in Cologne, Karlheinz Stockhausen (1928-) brought to his art the same sort of single-minded devotion Wagner brought to The Ring. No task, whether involving electronics, conventional instruments or a combination of both, seemed too great for him. He formed his own ensemble, directing its sounds through synthesizers and amplifiers that he controlled himself; he studied phonetics and acoustics, evolving a theory of parameters, or dimensions in sound, and applied his researches to a series of monster compositions dominated by his seven-part opera cycle entitled Licht (one part for each day of the week), on which he has been at work since 1984. Though people have dismissed Stockhausen as a theorist whose output has been all hot air, he has demonstrated in such works as Gruppen for three orchestras (1957), Hymnen (1967), Prozession (1967), Stimmung (1968), Jubilaeum (1977) and a cycle of scores inspired by his son and other members of his closely integrated family that he remains one of the mostformidable figures of modern music, who tirelessly promotes his cause around the world.
Hans Werner Henze (1926-), on the other hand, has been content to employ traditional musical forms, producing an imposing series of operas, six symphonies, and a massive, neo-romantic piano concerto. In Henze's music, his respect for German musical convention is shot through with an Italian lyricism - he prefers Italian life to that in his homeland. Henze's involvement with Communism has yielded such works as his oratorio The Raft of the Medusa (1968), whose Hamburg premiere was brutally broken up by the West German police, and his war opera (to a text by the English playwright Edward Bond) We Come to the River (1976).
France
One of the most original and impressive composers to have emerged since World War II is Olivier Messiaen (1908-92). Messiaen has combined an indebtedness to the French tradition of Berlioz, Franck and Debussy - the latter notably in the piano work Catalogue d'oiseaux ('Bird Catalogue', 1958) - with influences as diverse as bird song, plainsong and oriental music. A devout Catholic, Messiaen wrote many of his works on religious themes, and produced the most powerful organ music since Bach.
The earlier works of Messiaen's pupil Pierre Boulez (1925- ), such as Le Marteau sans matre ('The Hammer without a Master') for voice and chamber orchestra (1953-55) and Pli selon pli ('Fold upon Fold') for soprano and chamber orchestra (1957-62), employ twelve-note techniques, and Boulez has also experimented widely with electronic sounds. Although he has composed less in recent years, as a conductor Boulez has remained a tireless champion of new music.
Another pupil of Messiaen, mainly active in France, is the Romanian-born Greek Iannis Xenakis (1922-), who is not only one of the most important composers of the 20th century, but also a mathematician, logician, poet and architect; in this last capacity he at one time worked with Le Corbusier. Mathematics (particularly probability theory) has played an important role in his music, which, although mostly scored for conventional instruments, he has often written with the aid of a computer.
The Soviet Union
The pressures put upon Shostakovich to produce 'people's music', and which resulted in some masterpieces quite extraordinary in their inner tension, were gradually relaxed after his death. Subsequent Soviet and post-Soviet composers have had access to all the latest trends, and have had brilliant ensembles to perform the fruits of this new musical freedom. From this more temperate climate two composers in particular, Edison Denisov (1929- ) and Alfred Shnitke (1934- ), appear to have benefited. Both have produced imaginative and original music, Shnitke's possessing sometimes a blackly humorous element of send-up, as in his violin concerto incorporating a 'silent' cadenza that the soloist has to go through the motions of playing, with Paganini-like frenzy.
Eastern Europe
In Poland this state of musical freedom was achieved somewhat sooner, thanks partly to the Warsaw Festival, an annual autumn ferment of new ideas. Thus Witold Lutoslawski (1913- ) was able to apply all the modern techniques at his disposal to works (such as his string quartet of 1964 and cello concerto of 1970) that were at the same time products of an exceptionally lucid and, for the listener, by no means daunting mind.
His younger compatriot, Krzysztof Penderecki (1933- ), was prone to employ more sensational effects, such as dense note-clusters and huge orchestral and choral glissandi, yet in his Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima for 52 solo strings (1960), his St Luke Passion (1966) and his opera The Devils of Loudun (1969) he composed music that, for all its apparent complexity, proved shattering in its impact.
To write with this sort of boldness, the Hungarian composer Gyorgy Ligeti (1923- ) had to move to the West before unleashing his requiem (1965) and his opera Le Grand Macabre (1978). Ligeti's music, like that of all the above composers, has traveled widely. Le Grand Macabre, an operatic equivalent of the Theater of the Absurd with Bosch, Bruegel, Kafka and Lewis Carroll among its influences, had its premiere in Stockholm but was soon seen in Britain, Germany, France, Spain and America. His San Francisco Polyphony (1974), a brilliant orchestral spider's web of sound, beat America's West Coast Minimalist composers at their own game, and showed how tiny repeated wisps of tune could be spun into a work of beauty, intricacy and substance.
MINIMALISM
Minimalism in music was first evolved by the American composer Terry Riley (1935- ) in the late 1960s. Minimalist music involves the extensive repetition of the simplest of melodies or rhythms over slowly changing harmonies, and the overall effect, for those with the patience to listen, can be compellingly hypnotic. The style continues to be vigorously exploited by such American composers as Steve Reich (1936- ) and Philip Glass (1937- ). The latter has worked with Ravi Shankar, and classical Indian music has been an important influence on his work. Glass has also brought Minimalism to the opera house, with pieces such as Einstein on the Beach (1976) and Akhnaten (1984). However, it has taken the 'post-Minimalist' political opera Nixon in China (1987) by John Adams (1947- ) to prove to some listeners that there is more to Minimalism than at first meets the ears.
* MOVEMENTS IN ART SINCE 1945
* MODERNISTS AND OTHERS
* OPERA
* POPULAR MUSIC IN THE 20TH CENTURY
* MUSIC FROM AROUND THE WORLD
* MODERN DANCE
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The Symphony Orchestra and its Instruments (page 1)
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The London Symphony Orchestra at the Barbican Center, London. The seating position of the various musicians in an orchestra affects the interplay of sounds.
The Symphony Orchestra and its Instruments (1 of 3)
The rise of the symphony orchestra, consisting of 80 or more instrumentalists performing for a conductor in a concert hall, was one of the great musical developments of the 19th century. Its roots lay in the much smaller groups of players that formed the opera orchestras of the 17th and 18th centuries, and in the ensembles that took part in performances in cathedrals and churches. In the Baroque period, these tended to be based on a small body of strings, supported by keyboard continuo (either harpsichord or organ), and sometimes with woodwind players in addition.
The arrival of the classical symphony, via Haydn and Mozart, brought larger forces into play: more strings and woodwind (with the clarinet gradually added to the flute, oboe and bassoon), a pair of horns, plus ceremonial trumpets and kettledrums. Throughout the 19th century these forces continued to be augmented: Beethoven's fifth symphony (1808) incorporated trombones, a piccolo and a double bassoon (all new to the concert hall), and Berlioz's Symphonie Fantastique (1830) added cornets, tubas and extra percussion.
By the start of the 20th century, the range of instruments at a composer's disposal had grown still larger. Stravinsky's Rite of Spring (1913) required eight horns and quintuple woodwind (i.e. five instruments in each woodwind section). Strauss's Alpine Symphony (1915) included wind and thunder machines, and Respighi's The Pines of Rome (1924) the recorded sound of a nightingale.
Platform placing
In general, the 19th-century structure of the orchestra has been maintained, though seating positions have been altered since Haydn's and Beethoven's day. The first and second violins, formerly placed to the left and right of the conductor, are now massed together on the left. Though this achieves greater brilliance of sound, it is at the expense of spatial interplay between the two sets of instruments, an effect (often witty) that was deliberately built into Classical scores.
Furthermore, the modern practice of placing the cellos and double basses at the right of the platform, instead of more centrally, has destroyed the original sense of balance and the solid foundation of tone that the basses provided when they stretched round the back of the platform, facing straight into the audience. Though some 20th-century conductors (Otto Klemperer and Sir Adrian Boult were two) adhered, as far as they could, to the old layout, most of today's star conductors prefer the modern arrangement, and orchestras have become accustomed to it.
For some idea of how Classical symphonies were meant to sound, however, one can turn to the increasing number of specialist ensembles that have been revolutionizing the concert platform and grabbing for themselves an increasingly large slice of the symphonic repertoire. But no matter whether an orchestra uses modern or 'original' placings and instruments (or at any rate ones designed to correspond as closely as possible to their 18th- or 19th-century predecessors) these instruments continue to fall into four families: strings, woodwind, brass and percussion.
* WAVE THEORY
* ACOUSTICS
* WHAT IS MUSIC?
* WESTERN MUSIC
* MUSIC FROM AROUND THE WORLD
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p582-2
A lute. The lute and guitar families are not normally used in an orchestral context, tending to be used as solo instruments or to accompany a singer. The lute has been traced back to around 2000 BC in ancient Mesopotamia and reached its peak of its popularity in the 16th and 17th centuries. The guitar was introduced into Spain by the Moors in the Middle Ages.
The Symphony Orchestra and its Instruments (2 of 3)
Strings
Of the string instruments, the violins produce the highest sound, with the violas, cellos and double basses following in descending order (the larger the instrument the deeper the sound). Their forerunners, employed until about 1700, were the viols and were likewise of various sizes. (In fact the modern double bass, with its characteristic sloping shoulders, is modeled on the old double-bass viol.) Today, many specialist groups have revived the art of viol playing, and the cello-like bass viol (often called the viola da gamba) has in particular regained its place in the concert hall.
The viola is a larger, lower-pitched relative of the violin, and is likewise placed beneath the player's chin. Its mellow, often gravely eloquent tone blends into the string ensemble and in solo passages achieves high expressiveness (as in Mozart's series of string quintets). The cello (whose full name is violoncello) has a still darker tone, though its lighter upper register can be exploited to magical effect. All these are four-stringed instruments (the strings originally being of gut, later replaced by wire or wire-wound gut); so, too, is the double bass, though five-string basses, giving the instrument an even deeper register, are also found.
* WAVE THEORY
* ACOUSTICS
* WHAT IS MUSIC?
* WESTERN MUSIC
* MUSIC FROM AROUND THE WORLD
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The Symphony Orchestra and its Instruments (page 2)
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From bottom to top: Oboe, cor anglais and clarinet.
&The Symphony Orchestra and its Instruments (3 of 3)
Woodwind
The woodwind are so called because they were all originally made of wood - although most flutes today are actually made of metal. The woodwind are of two types: those that are blown directly (the various kinds of flute and recorder) and those that are blown by means of a single or double reed.
The highest, most piercing flute is the piccolo. Pitched an octave lower is the standard flute (often, like the other woodwind instruments, employed in pairs in the orchestra), with a compass from middle C upwards for three octaves. Lower still, and considerably longer, is the alto flute, whose special tone quality proved popular with various 20th-century composers, particularly Ravel and Stravinsky. Unlike the rest of the woodwind, the flute is played sideways, the sound being produced by blowing across an aperture cut into the top of the tube at one end.
The oboe and its lower-toned relative, the cor anglais, are both blown through a double reed, as also (in descending order of pitch) are the bassoon and double bassoon. The oboe, 'reedier' in sound than the pure-toned flute, has a range from the B flat below middle C upwards for more than 2
octaves, though some modern virtuosi have stretched this compass farther. The cor anglais ('English horn') is neither English nor a horn but a large oboe, recognizable by its bulb-shaped bell and darker tone quality. It is pitched a fifth lower than an oboe. The bassoon, which is the bass member of the woodwind family, consists of a long tube doubled back on itself (in Italy it is called the fagotto, or bundle of sticks). Though sometimes employed to comic effect, its nasal tone is capable of eloquence and, at the top and bottom of its compass, which stretches from the B flat below the bass stave upwards for 3
octaves, it can also sound sinister. The even more unwieldy double bassoon is pitched an octave lower.
The clarinet, which looks like an oboe, differs by being blown through a single reed. Its creamy tone was much loved by Mozart, who was the first composer to realize its full potential, both as a member of the woodwind and as a solo instrument. The clarinet family is a large one, the instruments originally being made in several sizes to facilitate playing in different keys. But by the time the symphony orchestra was fully established, only two sizes - the B flat (with a compass stretching three octaves from the D below middle C) and the A (with a compass a semitone lower than the B flat) - were in regular use. These, however, were merely the 'standard' clarinets, and to them were added the high E flat clarinet, whose piercing tone quality was exploited by Berlioz in his Symphonie Fantastique; the basset horn, a low-toned clarinet adored by Mozart but not much used by other composers; and the bass clarinet, pitched an octave lower than the B flat clarinet and shaped like a saxophone.
The saxophone itself, though of more recent vintage (it was invented by Adolphe Sax in 1840), is also a species of clarinet, using a single reed, but producing a more vibrant, wailing oily tone. It too comes in several sizes and plays a vital role in jazz, though Classical composers have also made use of it.
Brass
Brass instruments are made of metal and their sound is produced by vibration of the lips against a cup-shaped mouthpiece. The horn, trumpet, trombone and tuba are the brass instruments most commonly used in the symphony orchestra, though the cornet (resembling a trumpet but with a wider bore and an expressiveness all its own) also appears and has been particularly popular with French composers from Berlioz onwards.
The horn, distinguished by its coiled shape, was at one time capable of producing only a limited number of notes. But in its modern form, through the addition of valves, it is more versatile and provides a complete chromatic compass from B below the bass stave upwards for 3
octaves. Of the brass instruments it is the most mellow, though it can also be assertive and agile. In Britain, the horn is often referred to as the 'French horn', because it was in France that the instrument was perfected.
The modern trumpet, like the horn, has valves and considerable versatility. Originally, however, it was a straight tube with a limited number of notes at its disposal, and its use was primarily ceremonial. The more familiar type of folded trumpet first appeared in the 15th century, and the addition of 'crooks' - detachable sections of tubing that altered its pitch - gave it greater scope. The modern trumpet uses valves to open up different sections of tubing, and in the case of the B flat trumpet has a compass from E below middle C upwards for about three octaves (jazz trumpeters often push it still higher). There are also smaller, higher modern trumpets.
Trombones, which come in tenor and bass versions (as well as others less frequently used), operate with the help of valves and U-shaped slides that move along the length of the instrument and provide a compass from E below the bass stave upwards for about three octaves in the case of the tenor trombone, and from the lower D flat in the case of the bass - though even lower notes can be produced. The solemnity of trombone tone was effectively used by Mozart in The Magic Flute, and grandly exploited by Wagner in his music dramas. The tuba, an instrument of more recent invention, underpins the trombones and comes in tenor, bass and other versions (though the bass is the one most regularly employed in the symphony orchestra). Its great girth, and its upward-facing bell, make it instantly recognizable. Its compass, founded on the F an octave below the bass stave, stretches upwards as high as three octaves. The so-called 'Wagner tuba', designed for use in Wagner's Ring, is really a large, modified horn, and comes in two sizes.
Percussion
Percussion instruments are either struck or shaken, and may be either pitched or non-pitched. The copper-bottomed timpani, or kettledrums, are the most important and versatile of all the instruments in this section. Of Arab origin, they were first used orchestrally in the 17th century, when they were played in pairs and were capable of only two notes, one tuned to the tonic and the other to the dominant of whatever key was being performed, the pitch being adjusted by screws on the rim of the drums. From Beethoven's time onwards, however, the instruments gained other tunings - in the 20th century with the help of foot pedals, which add glissandi, to their range of effects - and they began to be used, whether loudly or softly, to increasingly attractive purpose.
Side drum, tenor drum, bass drum, cymbals, triangle and castanets are the instruments of indefinite pitch most frequently seen in the symphony orchestra, though today the variety of such instruments is endless. Keyed percussion instruments, such as the xylophone, glockenspiel, vibraphone and marimba, are tuned to a definite pitch, and have proved increasingly popular with modern composers. The piano and the celesta are also, technically, percussion instruments (in that they are struck) and even the harp is sometimes listed as a member of the percussion family, even though its strings, encompassing seven octaves, are plucked.
KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS
The organ is the oldest of the keyboard instruments, being known to the ancient Greeks and Romans. Probably sometime in the 13th century, levers began to replace the clumsy sliders previously used to admit air into the pipes of the organ. These levers provided the basis of the modern keyboard. The organ grew in size over the years, the medieval portative (i.e. transportable) and the gentle Baroque organ being very much smaller than the more familiar multi-keyboard 19th-century organs. But whatever the size, the operation - involving bellows blowing air through pipes to sound the notes - is the same. At one time the bellows were worked by hand, until electric motors made the process easier. With the help of 'stops' (which mechanically control the tone), extra keyboards (including the 'pedal-board' for the feet), and a swell-box to increase or reduce the volume of sound, the organist gradually gained a formidable armory of sonic effects. The modern electronic organ has done away with the need for pipes, but (though cheaper to buy and easier to maintain) is regarded as a feeble substitute for the real thing.
The harpsichord, roughly akin to a grand piano in shape, originated in the 15th century - or even earlier - but acquired its most developed form in the Baroque period. The harpsichord may have one, two, or (exceptionally) three keyboards. Its strings, unlike those of the piano, are plucked mechanically rather than struck. The smaller, softer-toned clavichord, dating from the same period, was essentially a domestic instrument, its strings being hit by a small blade or brass known as a 'tangent'.
From these instruments there derived the pianoforte (so named, in Italian, because it could play both softly and loudly). At first it was sometimes called the fortepiano, and the name is nowadays abbreviated to 'piano'. In essence, the names fortepiano and pianoforte mean the same, the terms now being used principally to differentiate the light, clear, silvery-toned 18th-century instrument (the correct vehicle for Mozart's piano concertos) from the larger, weightier, more brilliant concert grand, built from the 19th century by such firms as Steinway, Bechstein, Bosendorfer and Blethner.
Other keyboard instruments, such as the ethereal-toned celesta, invented in France in 1886, and the wailing electronic ondes martenot, also of French origin, are also sometimes employed in an orchestral context. The latter instrument was really an early form of synthesizer; this modern instrument, as well as imitating many acoustic instruments, can make sounds of its own - both music and sheer noise.
* WAVE THEORY
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* WHAT IS MUSIC?
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* MUSIC FROM AROUND THE WORLD
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Opera (page 1)
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Opera singers (from left to right) Placido Domingo, Josu Carreras and Luciano Pavarotti in Monaco in 1994. The three tenors are considered among the best operatic voices of the late 20th-century, and together they have helped popularize opera.
Opera (1 of 3)
Opera is the Italian word for 'work'. But, as an abbreviation of opera in musica (a 'musical work'), it began to be used in 17th-century Italy for music dramas in which singers in costume enacted a story with instrumental accompaniment.
The narrative element was what differentiated these pieces from earlier entertainments known as intermedii, or 'interludes', which were written to celebrate weddings, birthdays and similar events at the Italian courts, and incorporated lavish balletic and vocal sections.
Jacopo Peri's Euridice, first performed at the Pitti Palace, Florence, in October 1600, may not have been the first opera ever written, but it was the first to survive, along with Emilio de Cavalieri's sacred drama, The Representation of Soul and Body, composed in the same year for performance in Rome.
Early opera
The first true masterpieces in the form, however, were by the Venetian composer, Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643). Monteverdi's Orfeo of 1607, followed by The Return of Ulysses (1640) and The Coronation of Poppea (1642), gradually took opera out of the court and into the public domain with music of great beauty and sophistication. Each work dictated its own form, with the music providing the dramatic weight. Brief arias (solo songs), madrigals (part songs), declaimed recitatives (sung speeches), duets and ensembles were the materials Monteverdi worked with, and he used them with a freedom that his successors might have envied.
Many of the most prominent opera composers of the late 17th and early 18th centuries came from Naples, giving rise to the term the Neapolitan School, even though their operas tended to be first performed in Rome or Venice. One such composer was Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725) in whose work the conventions of opera seria including the da capo aria, were established.
In France a native form of opera was developed by Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632-87), who reduced the extended Italian aria to shorter 'airs' and introduced a declamatory style of recitative, and assigned a major role to ballet interludes and choruses. The operatic style established by Lully reached the high point of its development in the operas of Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683-1764) - especially Hippolyte et Aricie (1733) and Castor et Pollux (1737) - with their complex and brilliant orchestration, rich and sometimes dissonant harmony, and pervasive atmosphere of sensuous and languid melancholy.
Just as in France the acceptance of opera was hampered by the strength of the tradition of the court ballet, so in England its development was delayed by the popularity of the masque. But England did produce one operatic masterpiece in Dido and Aeneas (1689) - the one 'true' opera of Henry Purcell (1659-95) - which, despite its brevity, offers an astonishing range of dramatic expression, vivid characterization and depth of human understanding.
* MUSIC OF THE BAROQUE
* CLASSICAL MUSIC
* MUSIC OF THE ROMANTICS
* MODERNISTS AND OTHERS
* MUSIC SINCE 1945
* CLASSICAL BALLET
* CLASSICISM IN LITERATURE
* ROMANTICISM IN LITERATURE
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Papageno, the bird- catcher from Mozart's mystical opera on masonic themes, The Magic Flute. The opera is named after the flute given to the prince Tamino to safeguard him against evil as he attempts to free Pamina, daughter of the Queen of the Night, from Sarastro, High Priest of Isis and Osiris. In fact, on reaching Sarastro's temple Tamino finds that Sarastro is wise and good, and the Queen of the Night evil. Next to Papageno in this 1819 engraving is the chime of magic bells given to him as protection as he accompanies Tamino in his quest.
Opera (2 of 3)
The 18th century
The greatest operas of the first half of the 18th century were written in England - but their composer was German-born, and the language of their texts (because of the rage for opera seria) was Italian. By the time George Frideric Handel (1685-1759) arrived in London from Italy in 1710, opera had become more formalized. The da capo aria (so called because its introductory section was repeated da capo, or 'from the beginning', after a contrasting middle section) reigned supreme. For all the melodic beauty Handel was able to bring to such arias in his 39 operas, the unhurried progress of the music, together with the seemingly stilted nature of many of the plots, demands a degree of patience on the part of a modern audience. Nevertheless the rewards provided by a sympathetic performance of operas such as Rodelinda (1725), Orlando (1733) or Alcina (1735) speak for themselves.
Opera seria ('serious opera') was the apt title later given to the form favored by Handel and his contemporaries, and Italian remained the favored language, even when (as in Handel's case) the works were written for a London audience. But because operas were performed with the house lights up (not until Wagner's time was the auditorium plunged into darkness) people were able to follow the action with a copy of the text on their knees.
The term opera seria was strictly applied to operas whose subjects were taken from Classical and medieval history, but it is more loosely used to include operas on mythological themes. The principal roles in opera seria were usually taken by castrati (male sopranos or contraltos). Today, the idea of a 'castrated' Nero or Julius Caesar makes the art of opera seria seem dramatically implausible, as also does the insistence on happy or semi-happy endings, even for potentially tragic stories.
Even though the brilliant, florid-voiced castrati were the stars of their day, they ultimately provoked composers such as the German Christoph Willibald von Gluck (1714-87) to rebel against what seemed the increasingly rigid conventions of opera seria, and to demand a complete reform of the art.
Orpheus and Eurydice (1762) and Alceste (1767) were the first fruits of Gluck's determination to make opera more genuinely dramatic, and to 'restrict music to its true office by means of expression and by following the situations of the story'. Working in Paris (where opera, in the form of opura ballet, suffered from other rigid traditions) as well as in Vienna, Gluck fell victim to the French capital's rival operatic factions, which had already (in 1752) prompted the so-called Guerre des Bouffons, or 'war of the comedians' between supporters of Italian comic opera and the stately French tradition of Lully and Rameau.
But if, in the end, he was a disillusioned man, Gluck's operatic beliefs were soon to find inspired expression in the great masterpieces of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-91). Mozart's operas straddled the worlds of comedy and opera seria, and of Italian and German opera, in a way nobody else achieved. Whether in Idomeneo (1781), the most human opera seria ever written, or in his penetrating human comedies - The Marriage of Figaro (1786), Cos fan tutte (1790), Don Giovanni (1787) and The Magic Flute (1791) - Mozart was the supreme operatic genius of his age. He accepted the convention of the 'number' opera (in which the music is divided into arias, duets, ensembles and so forth, known as 'numbers') but provided a new continuity that found its high watermarks in the finale of Act Two of The Marriage of Figaro and the climax of Don Giovanni
* MUSIC OF THE BAROQUE
* CLASSICAL MUSIC
* MUSIC OF THE ROMANTICS
* MODERNISTS AND OTHERS
* MUSIC SINCE 1945
* CLASSICAL BALLET
* CLASSICISM IN LITERATURE
* ROMANTICISM IN LITERATURE
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Opera (page 2)
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Opera (page 3)
ftsTitle
Tristan and Isolde, by Richard Wagner, was unsuccessful when first produced in 1865, but is now recognized as occupying a crucial place in opera history. Tristan is one of a group of works in which Wagner sought to create a totally new art form, which he called music-drama rather than opera. Shown here is a scene from the Paris Opera's 1985 production.
Opera (3 of 3)
The 19th century
With Mozart as an example, operatic structure became increasingly continuous. In Fidelio (1814), Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) used the methods of a traditional German Singspiel ('song-play', employing speech and song in alternation) to create a sublime music drama on the subject of love and liberty. Der Freischetz (1821) by Carl Maria von Weber (1786-1826), along with the same composer's Oberon (1826), bridged the gap between Mozart and Wagner.
With its Romanticism and its open-air scenario, Der Freischetz was a milestone on the road to Wagner's Ring, completed half a century later. By then, with characteristic single-mindedness, the German Richard Wagner (1813-83) had expanded and transformed the art of opera into what he himself preferred to describe as 'music drama'. Laid out in four parts, intended to be spread over four nights, Der Ring des Nibelungen ('The Nibelung's Ring') is the longest opera ever written. The Ring was the outcome of some 20 years of its composer's life, culminating in its first complete performance in 1876. By the time he completed it, having already produced The Flying Dutchman (1843), Lohengrin (1850), Tristan and Isolde (1865) and Die Meistersinger (1868), Wagner had made each act of his operas wholly continuous. He had also expanded his responsibilities as a composer by writing the words as well as the music of each of his works. He also acted as his own producer and designer, and built his own revolutionary theater at Bayreuth in Bavaria, complete with a covered orchestra pit.
Simultaneously in Italy, Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901) was following a parallel, if more cautious, course. Verdi inherited the tradition of the 'number opera' from his Italian predecessors. Notable among these were Gioacchino Rossini (1792-1868), whose operas include The Barber of Seville (1816) and William Tell (1829); Vincenzo Bellini (1801-25), best known today for Norma (1831); and the prolific Gaetano Donizetti (1797-1848), whose most famous works, Maria Stuarda (1834) and Lucia di Lammermoor (1835), are based on works by the Romantic writers Schiller and Scott respectively. Verdi gradually rebelled against this tradition, while retaining a lyrical Italian feeling for the art of bel canto ('beautiful singing'). Il Trovatore (1853) marked the turning point. Though today, in some respects, it may sound like just another number opera, it nevertheless represents a conscious effort on Verdi's part to escape from what he regarded as dead traditions. La Traviata (1853) - a more intimate opera - took him farther along the road to structural freedom, as indeed did each of his subsequent operas, right through to the two sublime masterpieces of his old age, Otello (1887) and Falstaff (1893). These two operas - both based on Shakespeare - demonstrated that Verdi had reached Wagner's goals by his own route, without sacrificing his abiding gift for melody. When told that Falstaff lacked 'tunes', Verdi could with justice reply that it was all melody - the only difference between it and its predecessors being that the tunes were no longer within inverted commas.
A significant trend in opera in the second half of the 19th century was the increasing use by composers of realistic subjects. Carmen (1875), by the French composer Georges Bizet (1838-75), is the savage tale of the fickle affections of a girl who works in a cigarette factory. In Italy a move towards down-to-earth representation of contemporary life (verismo) is registered in Cavalleria rusticana (1890) - a one-act opera by Pietro Mascagni (1863-1945). Pagliacci (1892) - a brief verismo opera by Ruggero Leoncavallo (1858-1919) is often performed with Mascagni's opera as a double bill, the two works together being popularly known as 'Cav' and 'Pag'. Verismo influence is also seen in some of the operas of Puccini.
The 20th century
From Verdi to Giacomo Puccini (1858-1924) in Italy - as from Wagner to Richard Strauss (1864-1949) in Germany - was inevitably a downhill progress. But the theatricality of Puccini's La Boheme (1896), Madama Butterfly (1900) and Tosca (1904), along with their sure-fire sense of melody and brilliance of orchestration, has kept them in the repertoire, just as have the bloodcurdling ferocity of Strauss's Salome (1905) and Elektra (1909), and the bitter-sweetness of Der Rosenkavalier (1911), with its application of a vast Wagnerian scale to a Viennese chocolate-box story.
Opera's real genius of this period, however, emerged from Czechoslovakia, as audiences have only recently come to realize. In Jenufa (1904), Katya Kabanova (1921), The Cunning Little Vixen (1924), The Makropoulos Case (1926), and From the House of the Dead (1930), Leos Janacek (1854-1928) showed himself to possess a deep compassion for his characters.
To state, as some authorities have done, that the history of opera ended with Puccini's unfinished Turandot in 1926 suggests that he manipulated his admirers all too well. Yet as early as 1902, Claude Debussy (1862-1918), had shown in the dreamlike shadowy world of Pelluas and Mulisande (his answer to the symbolism of Wagner's Tristan and Parsifal ) that opera was capable of taking new directions. The same was proved by the searing, yet compassionate Expressionist dramas, Wozzeck (1925) and Lulu (1937), by the Austrian Alban Berg (1885-1935).
More recently, Benjamin Britten (1913- 76), Michael Tippett (1905- ), Harrison Birtwistle (1934- ) and Peter Maxwell Davies (1934- ) in Britain, Hans Werner Henze, (1926- ), Aribert Reimann (1936- ) and Karlheinz Stockhausen (1928- ), Bern-Alois Zimmermann (1918-70) in Germany, Luciano Berio (1925- ) and Luigi Nono (1924-90) in Italy, Olivier Messiaen (1908-92) in France and John Adams (1947- ) in America are among those who have demonstrated opera to be alive and kicking, even if few composers today aspire to the prodigious output of a Handel or Donizetti.
* MUSIC OF THE BAROQUE
* CLASSICAL MUSIC
* MUSIC OF THE ROMANTICS
* MODERNISTS AND OTHERS
* MUSIC SINCE 1945
* CLASSICAL BALLET
* CLASSICISM IN LITERATURE
* ROMANTICISM IN LITERATURE
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Folk Music (page 1)
ftsTitle
May Day celebrations in a German village in the early 19th century. The May tree is visible in the background. While much folk music is intended for dancing, many songs, particularly ballads, are a form of story-telling. Most folk traditions include both types of music, and there is often considerable overlap.
Folk Music (1 of 2)
All the world's peoples have their different styles of community music, generally of anonymous authorship, which has been handed down, usually orally, from one generation to the next. In the West this music is called 'folk music', in order to distinguish it from the great Western 'classical' tradition. The original term was 'folk song', which was simply a translation of Volkslied, the German term for 'popular song'.
In music outside the Western tradition - now often referred to as 'world music' - there may also sometimes be distinctions between popular music and self-conscious 'art' music; this is particularly so in India and the Far East. However, all such distinctions tend to be blurred - as are the distinctions between the status of Western folk music and the community music of non-Western peoples. As Big Bill Broonzy once said, 'I guess all songs is folk songs. I never heard no horse sing 'em.' Though traditionally the product of musically uneducated rural and urban communities, folk music has proved, time and again, to be capable of immense subtlety, fascinating and memorable in itself, and capable also of inspiring formally trained composers to make use of it in their works, either by quotation or by imitation.
Folk music, although usually geographically specific in its origin, often evolves as it spreads - which is why, for example, some 'American' folk songs may sound Scottish. It is also the reason why there are often many variations in words and tune of the same basic song. Since those who created and performed such music usually had no academic training, the survival of folk songs and dances was dependent on the strength of the oral tradition. In this way, a variety of memorable, often strongly rhythmic melodies gained currency. Their moods might express happiness or sadness, conviviality or loneliness, and their range of subjects was wide. Love songs, lullabies, work songs, narrative songs, patriotic songs and drinking songs featured strongly, as one would expect.
* MUSIC OF THE ROMANTICS (NATIONALISM)
* POPULAR MUSIC IN THE 20TH CENTURY
* MUSIC FROM AROUND THE WORLD
* FOLK AND SOCIAL DANCING
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Folk Music (page 2)
ftsTitle
An Irish fiddler. The fiddle has become one of the main folk instruments in Ireland and Scotland, alongside older instruments such as the pipes and the harp. In the Scottish Highlands the fiddle was taken up when the bagpipes, in addition to the wearing of the kilt, were banned after the Jacobite Rebellion of 1745-46. Folk fiddling traditions are also strong in America and Norway. The Norwegian Hardanger fiddle has additional strings that vibrate sympathetically without being touched.
Folk Music (2 of 2)
Preservation
Naturally, once musical notation was devised, there was the possibility that surviving folk music could be preserved in writing for posterity, either by those who performed it or by listeners educated enough to write it down. This was largely haphazard until the 20th century, when various composers - notably Bula Bartk and Zoltan Kodaly in Hungary - methodically set about tracking down and preserving as authentically as possible the folk music of their homelands. In this process of scrupulous rediscovery it became clear that what, in the 19th century, has passed for folk music (in such works as Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsodies for solo piano) was often a soft-edged distortion of the real thing. At the end of the 19th century, the French composer Debussy wryly commented on this distorting process: 'From east to west the tiniest villages have been ransacked, and simple tunes, plucked from the mouths of hoary peasants, find themselves, to their consternation, trimmed with harmonic frills.' In contrast, Bartk's keyboard folk dances, including many valuable teaching pieces, were an instant revelation when they began to establish themselves early in the 20th century: the music was notably harder-edged, rhythmically more complex, harmonically more abrasive, melodically more irregular than the previous century's 'Germanization' of Eastern European folk song, and it exerted an exhilarating influence on Bartk's own compositional style.
Nationalism
What was true for Hungary proved equally true elsewhere. Though folk song had on occasion been introduced into European classical music, it was with the rise of musical 'nationalism' in the mid-19th century that it became a frequent feature. Edvard Grieg championed the folk music of his native Norway in numerous piano pieces and songs, employing dissonance in so individual a way that it had to be recognized as peculiarly Norwegian.
To that extent Grieg quoted genuine folk songs in his music, and to what extent he composed music in the style of folk songs, has never been fully clear. The same can be said for Antonin Dvorak, whose symphonies contain melodies so reminiscent of folk songs that it comes as a surprise to learn that Dvorak composed most of them himself. But then, in many Western countries, the bulk of folk melodies are themselves relatively recent. What passes as German folk music, for instance, dates largely from the 19th century, which is partly why Brahms' folk song collection, with piano accompaniment, sounds so Brahmsian. Many Italian folk songs, especially the 'Neapolitan' ones purveyed by world-famous tenors from Beniamino Gigli to Luciano Pavarotti, are even younger than their German equivalents, and are indeed indistinguishable from such popular touristic ditties as 'Santa Lucia' and 'O sole mio', which are not genuine folk songs at all.
British folk music
In Britain, folk music has a longer and richer history, many songs being traced to at least the 16th century, while the modal nature of some melodies indicates an imitation of medieval plainsong chant.
In Britain the founding of the Folk Music Society in 1898, and the work of Cecil Sharp (1859-1924) on behalf of both British folk songs and of those of the Appalachian Mountains in America (where many originally British folk songs had survived in an isolated community of immigrants), were steps on the road towards the expanding academic study of the music of communities all over the world, a field now given the title of ethnomusicology. However, Sharp's patronizing intent, to replace 'coarse music-hall songs' with folk tunes, and so 'do incalculable good in civilizing the masses', is not an attitude that would be shared by many modern ethnomusicologists.
While Sharp was helping to lay the foundations of what came to be known as the English folk song and folk dance revival, Majory Kennedy-Fraser (1857-1930) was doing the same for Scotland in her collections of Hebridean songs. But Scottish folk music, for all its richness and variety, was not enhanced by Kennedy-Fraser type 'arrangements' with their emasculated harmonies - though many people still assume this to be real Scottish music, in all its purity. Not until singers and song collectors such as Ewan McColl established themselves in the mid-20th century could Scottish folk music be heard in all its rawness and pungency. The Kelvin collection of Scottish folk songs, compiled in the 1960s by some of Scotland's leading composers, proved a similar corrective to the more sugary versions of traditional tunes. The melody of 'The Bonnie Earl o' Moray' was thereby stripped of its false sentimentality, and the result was a revelation.
A similar freshness of sound was brought by Benjamin Britten to the various folk-song arrangements he prepared for the singer Peter Pears, and for himself as piano accompanist. Though some listeners deemed them too 'mannered', they at least cast a more accurate light upon music that had had much of its cutting edge removed. The same, more recently, has been done on behalf of old Christmas carols, many of which had become enfeebled by vulgarized arrangements.
Roots
But a return to roots, rather than the unquestioning acceptance of distortions, is the welcome trend in the folk-music movement, which in recent years has developed into an increasingly heavy industry in many parts of the world. At worst, this has resulted in the commercialization of folk music, but even at that level it has helped to open people's ears to the sound of ethnic instruments such as the Appalachian dulcimer, a species of zither employed in the Appalachian Mountains since the 18th century and popularized in modern times by performers such as John Jacob Niles and Jean Ritchie.
Hearing folk music performed on the right instruments by gifted exponents has been a major factor in the continuing rise of interest (not only among specialists) in the subject as a whole. Fiddle music can be Scottish or it can be Cajun. Indeed, how French folk music reached Louisiana from Nova Scotia in the 18th century, and became 'Cajun' through merging with the music of local Blacks and adding the sound of the accordion to that of the fiddle, is a good example of the complex processes by which folk music evolves and is enriched.
* MUSIC OF THE ROMANTICS (NATIONALISM)
* POPULAR MUSIC IN THE 20TH CENTURY
* MUSIC FROM AROUND THE WORLD
* FOLK AND SOCIAL DANCING
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Popular Music in the 20th Century (page 1)
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Charlie Parker and Miles Davis. Parker was one of the leaders of the bebop movement in jazz, which revolted against the dominance of swing in the 1940s. Davis, a devotee of Parker's harmonic and rhythmic innovations, later made attempts to fuse jazz with rock elements.
Popular Music in the 20th Century (1 of 3)
Popular music, like folk music, has a wider appeal than classical music, and has in many cases been disseminated by oral means. Unlike folk music, however, popular music is produced by professional musicians. The 20th century has witnessed an increasing uniformity of styles of popular music, largely because of the powerful cultural influence of the USA, and the rapid spread of new pieces of music through record sales, radio and television broadcasting.
Not until Wagner set down his musical principles did composers recognize a distinct division between 'serious' and 'popular' music. From the mid-19th century onwards the serious and the popular increasingly flowed down separate channels. Operetta (i.e. 'light opera') and dance music were purveyed, to perfection, by Johann Strauss (1825-99) in Vienna, by Jacques Offenbach (1819-80) in Paris, and by the so-called Savoy Operas (really operettas) of W.S. Gilbert (1836-1911) and Arthur Sullivan (1842-1900) in Victorian London. Musical comedy and the Broadway musical were the 20th-century offspring of operetta, and of the old German Singspiel
Whatever species they belong to, these works had as their common factor the alternation between spoken words and sung ones. In their simplicity they were all, in a sense, light operas, but they were capable of considerable subtlety and melodic distinction. The wit, both musical and verbal, of The Mikado (1885) by Gilbert and Sullivan has proved indestructible. Musical comedy, in comparison, tended to be more lyrical, especially in the works of the Irish-born American Victor Herbert (1859-1924) and Jerome Kern (1885-1945), whose Show Boat (1927) contained some of the best American songs of the period. Songs such as 'Ol' Man River' were popularized by Paul Robeson (1898-1976), the first Black bass to achieve international fame. Robeson also championed the Negro spiritual, i.e. the religious songs of Black America, enduring examples of which include 'Go down Moses' and 'Deep River'.
Broadway
The Broadway musical preserved the lyricism of musical comedy in such successes as Oklahoma! (1943) by Rodgers and Hammerstein, but also proved capable of bringing new edge and vitality to the form. With Lorenz Hart (1895-1943) as his sardonic literary partner, Richard Rodgers (1902-80) proved an infinitely sharper composer in Pal Joey (1940) than with the more sentimental Oscar Hammerstein II(1895-1960) in The Sound of Music (1959). But for sheer punch and incisiveness, West Side Story (1958), with music by Leonard Bernstein (1918-90) and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim (1930- ), remains unsurpassed.
These popular songs, whether written in isolation or for a stage production, have always been an American specialty. Notable exponents of the genre include Irving Berlin (1888-1989), composer of 'White Christmas' and 'Alexander's Ragtime Band'; Cole Porter (1893-1964), whose witty songs include 'Let's do it', 'You're the top', and 'I get a kick out of you'; and George Gershwin (1898-1937), whose melodic perfection was heard most clearly in the opera Porgy and Bess (1935).
Blues and Jazz
At its best, whether in Gershwin or in the often despairing music of the 12-bar blues, which follows a precisely set sequence of chords, the American popular song achieved the status of an art form, with the Black singers Bessie Smith (1898-1937) and Billie Holiday (1915-59) as its greatest exponents. The blues has been Black America's most eloquent gift to the world of music - a major influence on jazz and, since the 1950s, on rock. The blues is also the probable source of the term 'blue note', referring to certain notes of the scale (in particular the third and seventh) that are slightly flattened, or 'leaned upon', in the performance of jazz and blues, and add their own special coloring to the music.
Though jazz is usually said to have been born in the early years of the 20th century, its roots lie in the music that began to develop in the Black communities of the Southern States of the USA towards the end of the 19th century. Particularly in New Orleans, the fusion of Black and European cultures enabled jazz to formulate and gain its own identity, at first in saloon bars and brothels but also in the street parades that were part of New Orleans life.
Ragtime - an early form of jazz and one that was sometimes composed rather than improvised - was characterized by witty syncopation of simple tunes. Ragtime was particularly associated with solo piano performance, the most famous exponent of the 'rag' being the Black pianist and composer Scott Joplin (1868-1917).
In the early days the form and harmony of jazz were simple; the complexity came from the way the performers improvised collectively upon the simple melodies, and from their command of syncopation. Jazz music inevitably soon swept northwards to Chicago and other cities, before spreading abroad not only through live performances, but also the increasing sales of recorded music and radio broadcasting. Louis Armstrong (1901-71) was one of the first to carry the message beyond New Orleans, where he was born. As a solo cornet player and singer, Armstrong had created his own instantly recognizable style by the 1920s, basing his improvisations on the harmonic sequence of tunes rather than the melodies themselves. This was a development of immense importance and, by the 1940s, had led to jazz performances in which the original melody was sometimes never stated at all, but merely implied by its underlying harmonies. Armstrong was a practitioner of the style known as Dixieland, which married elements from both ragtime and blues with its own distinctive improvisations.
Though jazz in Armstrong's early days was predominantly the music of Black Americans, White musicians - such as Bix Beiderbecke (1903-31), another brilliant cornet player - proved that it was not exclusively a Black preserve. As the popularity of jazz began to spread, so the bands began to grow larger. During what became known as the 'swing' era, which dominated jazz just before World War II, bands such as that of Benny Goodman (1909-86), consisting of brass and reed sections blowing against each other over a solid beat, grew fashionable. Goodman's Carnegie Hall concerts in New York were deemed by some to have made jazz 'respectable'.
* OPERA
* MUSIC FROM AROUND THWORLD
* FOLD AND SOCIAL DANCING
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Popular Music in the 20th Century (page 2)
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Bill Haley and the Comets (right) set America and the rest of the world alight in the 1950s with the heavy dance beat of 'Rock Around the Clock'.
p Popular Music in the 20th Century (2 of 3)
Swing to bebop
Crucial to the success of the bands were their virtuoso instrumentalists, including Goodman (an outstanding clarinetist), the trombonist Glenn Miller (1904-44), and the tenor saxophonist Lester Young (1909-59). Miller formed his own band, developed the saxophone-dominated 'Miller Sound' and achieved a phenomenal success during World War II with such hits as 'Moonlight Serenade' and 'In the Mood'. Young - a member of Count Basie's (1904-84) band - was to prove influential on the development, after World War II, of what became known as 'modern' jazz. By that time the saxophone (whether soprano or alto, tenor or bass) had established itself as the equal of any brass instrument in the performance of jazz. However 'primitive' jazz may once have been, it soon produced brilliant performers who both sustained the art of improvisation after classical music had lost it and were soloists of stunning virtuosity. The blind Black pianist Art Tatum (1910-56) was positively Lisztian in his technique. Jazz was not solely an instrumental art, of course, and the enormous popularity of big band jazz, in particular, was enhanced by the vocalists, of whom Bing Crosby (1903-77) and Frank Sinatra (1915- ) were the foremost exponents. In Sinatra's case, his looks as much as his vocal style sold records in his early years, presaging the mixture of music and image which was a significant part of rock 'n' roll.
The major jazz watershed occurred, significantly, in 1945, at the end of World War II, when 'traditional' jazz, with its simple harmonies, gave way to the complexity, tension, abrasiveness and virtuosity of 'modern' jazz, whose key figures have included the saxophonists Charlie 'Bird' Parker (1920-55) and Ornette Coleman (1930- ), and the trumpeters Dizzy Gillespie (1917-93) and Miles Davis (1926-91). Whether identified as 'cool' jazz, or as 'bop', 'bebop' or 'rebop' - an onomatopoeic description of one of its characteristic sounds - modern jazz gains much of its intensity of expression from the contrast between a steady beat and a convoluted, often apparently agonized, solo line. Though traditionalists tend to say that jazz came to an end in 1945, at least one of the greatest jazzmen, the pianist and band leader Duke Ellington (1899-1974), succeeded in straddling both camps and broke new ground with his Such Sweet Thunder suite.
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Popular Music in the 20th Century (page 3)
ftsTitle
The Beatles in 1964. The immense success of the Beatles was due in large part to the song writing talents of John Lennon and Paul McCartney. The Beatles' use of different moods, themes and musical styles has not been matched by any other rock group.
Popular Music in the 20th Century (3 of 3)
Since the advent of 'rock 'n' roll' in the 1950s, rock music - usually performed by groups using electronically amplified instruments - has established itself as the major force of present-day popular music. It is a fusion of many different styles of American music. It has jazz influences, progressing from harmony groups like the Ink Spots; country and western tinges, through the influence of such innovative country performers as Bob Wills (1905-75) and Hank Williams (1923-53); and elements from the folk music of singer-songwriters such as Leadbelly (1889- 1949) and Woody Guthrie (1912-67). Its biggest influence, however, was the blues. In the 1950s, black artists such as the guitarist and highly original songwriter Chuck Berry (1926- ) vied with whites such as Buddy Holly (1936-59) and, most notably, Elvis Presley (1935-77), whose blend of physicality and tremulous baritone delivery in such numbers as 'Heartbreak Hotel' inspired an almost religious devotion in his millions of fans.
The most significant developments in rock music in the 1960s took place in Britain, where the Beatles introduced a more sophisticated lyricism to the genre, and the Rolling Stones brought an overt sexuality to their rhythm-and-blues-based rock (music largely derived from the blues). The 'Mersey Sound', associated with the Beatles and other Liverpool-based groups, was a skillful brew of British and American trends of the period. The Beatles' best examples, such as 'Eleanor Rigby' and 'Help!' combined genuine melodic flair with words (the best by John Lennon, 1940-80) of real literary merit. Nor did their talents suffer from the short-windedness of some pop music. Their album, Sergeant Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967), was a milestone in the progress of popular music, as much for its adventurous use of recording techniques as for the songs. A similar literary distinction has stamped the songs of the American Bob Dylan (1941- ), who blended elements of rock 'n' roll and folk music in his songs of protest.
As technique improved within electronic rock music, such virtuoso performers as the American guitarist Jimi Hendrix (1942-70) and the British blues guitarist Eric Clapton (1945- ) redefined the sound of rock in the 1960s and 1970s. The themes introduced into rock by such instrumentalists were explored further by progressive rock bands of the 1970s like Pink Floyd. Another strand of pop music aimed itself at the younger consumer, throwing up teen idols such as Michael Jackson (1958- ). A further reaction to the increasing introspection of progressive rock was seen in the explosion of the deliberately unmusical punk rock in the late 1970s, epitomized by the abrasive and nihilistic anthems of its most notorious practitioners, the Sex Pistols.
By the late 1970s and 1980s, pop music seemed to be losing some of the focus that it had created for itself with rock 'n' roll, as record production and over theatrical live performances took the place of musical innovation. Different styles such as 'reggae', 'rap', and 'techno' also proliferated, and dance music dominated the record charts, usually electronically created and lacking in much more than a hypnotic rhythm. The most exciting music in this genre, which still reached previous levels of sophistication and innovation, was by the Americans Madonna (1958- ) and the artist formerly known as Prince (1958-).
CW/JR
THE REVIVAL OF MUSICALS
From the 1970s, the musical theater enjoyed a revival. Rock music hit the musical theater at the end of the 1960s. Hair (1969), by James Rado, Gerome Ragni and Galt McDermot, was the first 'rock musical', quickly followed by Godspell (1971), by Stephen Schwartz and John-Michael Tebelak, and Jesus Christ Superstar (1971), by the English team Tim Rice (1944- ) and Andrew Lloyd Webber (1948- ). Lloyd Webber built on this first success to create many more hit musicals, of which Cats (1981), based on poems by T.S. Eliot, and Phantom of the Opera (1986), with lyrics by Charles Hart and Richard Stilgoe, have been the most successful. The spectacular production musical, often remembered more for the special effects such as falling chandeliers and roller-skating steam engines than for the quality of the music, was developed by teams such as the Frenchmen Claude-Michel Schonberg and Alain Boublil, who were responsible for Les Misurables (1980) and Miss Saigon (1991). By this time, most of the impetus for 20th-century musical theater, an American invention, was coming from Europe.
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Music from around the World (page 1)
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A Bali musician playing the gamelan, a collection of gongs in Indonesian music.
Music from around the World (1 of 3)
In the West, when we speak of music, we think in terms of the Western 'classical' tradition; but there are many other musical traditions in the world that are highly developed. Distinct classical traditions, as opposed to folk or popular traditions, also exist in countries such as Arabia, India, Indonesia, China, Japan and Korea. Traditional music is generally associated with the activities of everyday life. Because it is not normally written down, this music is passed from one generation to another by word of mouth and imitation; traditional repertoires are constantly changing to meet the needs, either political or social, of a particular society.
Modes, scales and rhythms vary from country to country, but the interval of an octave is a universal concept. The octave is generally divided into three (tritonic), five (pentatonic), six (hexatonic) or seven (heptatonic). These intervals are not necessarily of equal size.
Africa
Song in Africa is a communal activity; song celebrates, comments on or spreads news of all aspects of African life. The main instruments are drums, rattles, xylophones, harps, lyres, single-string fiddles, flutes and side-blown trumpets. Instruments can be played solo, in groups or to accompany singing, and as some instruments are believed to possess supernatural powers, they act as mediators between people and gods. Drums can be played so that they imitate the rhythms and pitches of African tonal languages, and they are often used to transmit verbal messages. The ownership of trumpets and drums represents power, prestige and authority. The social organization of a tribe is often reflected by the instruments they play: for example, pygmies have few instruments, usually small in size so that they can be easily carried, while the music of nomadic tribes is mainly vocal and is often accompanied by clapping, slapping the body or a leather apron, and stamping.
The texts of African songs are often freely improvised, the singer acquiring inspiration from his surroundings - for ex ample, at wedding celebrations advice is often given to the bride and bridegroom on how they should conduct their married life together. The music usually consists of only two phrases that are constantly repeated, the first being sung by the soloist and the second by everyone present. The music is nearly always accompanied by steady rhythmic clap ping. The rhythms of African music are often additive (of unequal sections). In a time span of twelve beats in Western music the beat would be divided into 4 + 4 + 4 or 3 + 3 + 3 + 3, but in African music the beat could be divided into 5 + 7 or 3 + 4 + 5 units of time. Each drummer has his own basic rhythm to play; in a group only one player at a time may improvise.
Arabia
The most important instruments in Arabic music are the ud (short-necked lute), the qanun (psaltery), the rabab (fiddle), the nay (vertical flute), the kamanja (violin), the darbukka (drum) and the duff (tambourine). Often orchestras of many different instruments play in unison.
The text for many Arabic songs is derived from ancient literary traditions; heroic tales, love songs and death laments are popular and are generally for solo voice or choir with instrumental accompaniment.
The song is divided into three sections, in which the melodies are developed by contrasting improvised and fixed melodic passages, and is accompanied by a group of instrumentalists. Arabic music is particularly remarkable for its rhythm. The time cycle (called a 'chain') may be extremely long, yet the players can always mark the strong and weak beats precisely on each recurrence of the chain. The scale used in Arabic music consists of small intervals, and a tone can be divided into three or four microtones, while folk music favors the three-quarter tone for its melodies. Within the folk tradition melodies are harsh and dissonant, in contrast to the more delicate classical styles. Texts are often imaginative and express the personal feelings of the singer on loneliness or rejection by a lover.
China
From earliest times music has played an important role in Chinese society - at feasts and festivals, and in theater, dance-pantomimes, and puppet shows. Today it is used for political, social and educational purposes.
Traditionally instruments are classified according to the material from which they are made - metal, stone, clay, skin, silk, wood, gourd and bamboo. The oldest known traditional instruments are the qin (zither) and piba (lute); today other instruments are popular, such as the zheng (16-stringed zither), dizi (bamboo flute), erhu (2-stringed fiddle), yang-qin (dulcimer) and sona (oboe). There are large bells, and magnificent tuned gongs that can be played singly or in groups of ten or thirteen.
Each Chinese scale is selected from twelve basic pitches called le; each le is roughly equivalent to a semitone, but they are unequal. The commonest scale chosen from these notes is the pentatonic scale, followed by the heptatonic.
There are four categories of Chinese opera. The Kunqu, which is today staged mainly by amateurs, is characterized by a very sophisticated singing style and prominent use of dance. It is mainly accompanied by flute melodies. Both the Kunqu and the Pi-huang (Beijing or Peking opera) use the same fragments of melodies for different songs throughout the opera. The character of the melodies is changed by contrasting the tempo and rhythm. The main melody instrument is the jinghu (high-pitched two-stringed fiddle). The Gaoqiang opera takes local folk song as its musical basis while the Clapper opera, true to its name, is accompanied by a wooden clapper.
* ISLAMIC ART
* ASIAN ART
* CHINESE AND JAPANESE ART
* WHAT IS MUSIC?
* FOLK MUSIC
* THE WORLD OF DANCE
* THE LITERATURE OF ASIA
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Music from around the World (page 2)
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Ravi Shankar, perhaps the most famous exponent of the sitar, has spread appreciation of Indian music around the world with his raga recitals.
Music from around the World (2 of 3)
India
In India there are two main traditions of classical music: the north Indian or Hindustani, and the south Indian or Carnatic tradition. In northern India, music is divided into distinct styles, and most performers specialize in one particular genre. Great emphasis is placed on improvisation and the creation of new ideas within the strict rules of the classical tradition. In southern India more emphasis is placed on the performance of set pieces.
Within the classical tradition there is a predominance of string instruments and drums. The main instruments are the vina (stick zither), sitar (long-necked lute with moveable frets), tambura (long-necked lute with wire strings), and sarangi (fiddle played with a short bow). The most important drum in north India is the tabla - which is in fact a set of two drums, one smaller than the other, that produce an astonishing variety of sounds. In folk music, flutes, horns and bagpipes are common, as well as bells, cymbals, gongs, clappers and rattles of many shapes and sizes.
As in Chinese music the octave is divided into twelve semitones from which a variety of scales are formed, called that in north India, and melakarta in southern India. From each scale a set of fixed note-patterns is chosen, called a raga, and this forms the basis of an improvisation. Each improvisation is accompanied by a drone, a combination of the basic note and the fifth note of the scale. The raga creates an atmosphere, and some are believed to have magic powers - for example, creating rain or healing diseases. The basic song is short, but the skill of the performer is shown as he improvises, developing the ideas of his chosen raga.
Indonesia
In Indonesia music has been important in religious and state ceremonies, puppetry and dance drama since the 8th century. Once a preserve of royal courts, it is today heard in cities, towns and villages. The main instrumental unit in the classical tradition is called the gamelan. This is a term for an orchestra of instruments, chiefly gongs of various sizes; there are also metallophones (instruments like chime-bars), zithers, two-stringed fiddles and various drums.
There are two styles of playing. The first is soft, creating a feeling of mysticism and timelessness; it is performed by singers, and is associated with refined dances and puppet plays. The second is a strong style; its powerful sounds are suited to 'heroic' dances. There are two tuning systems. The slundro has five fixed, almost equal pitches to the octave, and the pulog has seven unequal pitches. As there is no standard slundro or pulog scale, each gamelan has its own tonal characteristics and sound color.
Folk music is a little more free in style, and groups of gongs, violins and bamboo rattles are common.
* ISLAMIC ART
* ASIAN ART
* CHINESE AND JAPANESE ART
* WHAT IS MUSIC?
* FOLK MUSIC
* THE WORLD OF DANCE
* THE LITERATURE OF ASIA
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Music from around the World (page 3)
ftsTitle
A modern display of traditional Japanese drum playing. In many countries traditional music may only survive by adapting to the changing tastes of audiences. Although this can result in debased commercialization, it can also lead to an exciting new musical synthesis.
Music from around the World (3 of 3)
Japan
There are two distinct traditions in Japanese music: folk music and art music. Japanese folksong is normally associated with work, dance, ceremony or feasts; it is sung with or without the accompaniment of hand-clapping or instruments. Instrumental pieces are usually played for dancing or at local ceremonies, and the instruments include the fue (bamboo flute), taiko (drum), bin-zasara (bamboo clappers) and suzu (bell). Art music is associated with the court, and with the religious ceremonies of Shintoism. It is performed by a male choir with instrumental accompaniment. The instruments played in art music are many; they include the koto (13-stringed zither), wagon (6-stringed zither), biwa (short-necked lute), shamisen (three-stringed lute), fue (bamboo flute) and sho (mouth-organ, used exclusively in court music). Percussion instruments include bells, drums, rattles and gongs.
In Japan the octave is divided into twelve fixed pitches, and scales normally contain five or seven notes.
The musical Noh drama is one of the most admired theatrical forms. The dances in Noh drama are of four types: ritual and comic dances, and those connected with prayer and warriors. These are accompanied by a flautist and three drummers playing stick-drum, shoulder-drum and hip-drum. The drummers play very intricate rhythmic patterns while the flute plays the melody.
There is also a long tradition of narrative song based on classical poetry, accompanied by koto, flute and drums.
* ISLAMIC ART
* ASIAN ART
* CHINESE AND JAPANESE ART
* WHAT IS MUSIC?
* FOLK MUSIC
* THE WORLD OF DANCE
* THE LITERATURE OF ASIA
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The World of Dance (page 1)
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Ceremonial dance in Burkina Faso. In tribal societies, dance is often deeply rooted in ritual.
The World of Dance (1 of 3)
Forms of dance vary from those that employ the whole body in free and open movement to those in which movement is restricted to certain parts - just to the eyes in the case of one Samoan courtship dance. Dance is usually rhythmic, often with an element of repetition, and forms a pattern in both time and space. Dance can be a simple expression of pleasure in the movement of the body or an art form of complex patterns and significant gestures.
Children dance almost as soon as they can stand, and since spontaneous dancing requires no spoken language, tools or taught skills, it is likely to have been one of the first forms of human artistic expression. Dance may generate its own rhythms and patterns but usually has some kind of musical accompaniment, which helps to maintain unison among groups of dancers. This may be vocal or instrumental - or just the sound of hands clapping or feet stamping in the dance itself. Music may simply reinforce the rhythm of a dance, but dance may also seek to interpret a piece of music, giving physical expression to its structure and content. Sometimes, as in some Indian forms, dancer and musician improvise variations, each challenging the other's skills.
Eastern dance tends to place more emphasis on subtle use of the hands and fingers than is the case in Western dance, where the emphasis is more on patterns made by the whole body moving through space.
The World of Dance (2 of 3)
Ritual and magic
Cave paintings dating from thousands of years ago show prehistoric people who from their postures can only be dancing. We do not know their steps, but from the evidence of later cultures and of anthropological studies we can deduce that these dances were probably ritualistic. Dancers sometimes wore masks and animal skins imitating the movements of the prey, while others enacted the hunt. Such hunting dances were partly a magical way to bring success and partly an offering to the hunted animal. In the same way war dances were a kind of spell to bring success in battle, and such dances also induced courage and a sense of invincibility in the participants.
Repetitive movement, especially when accompanied by chants or clapping, can induce a trance-like state. In such trances voodoo dancers in Haiti are able to step over hot coals, and the whirling dervishes of Turkey and the Barong dancers of Bali can slash themselves with knives or pierce themselves with weapons without coming to lasting harm. In Arizona the Hopi Indians grip live rattlesnakes between their teeth in a dance to invoke rain - the Hopi believe that when the snakes are released they carry the message to the gods.
In cultures throughout the world, dances have been performed to ensure fertility and to celebrate the rites of passage - birth, initiation into adulthood, and death. In many dance rituals a performer wears a mask and may sometimes be considered to become the god, ancestor or animal that the dance evokes. Sometimes the steps are very precise and must be exactly followed for their magic to work. For certain dances in the Pacific islands of the New Hebrides archers stood by ready to shoot any dancer who made a mistake.
Dance forms
Complicated dances demanded training and specialist performers, such as a shaman or priest or a group of temple dancers. From them developed theatrical dance. For some traditional Indian, Chinese and Japanese performances the stage is still ritually consecrated. Western theater also had its roots in dances at Greek religious festivals. Although dances might be conceived as an offering to the gods, spectators would still appreciate the skill of the performers and enjoy the art of the dance, and in time such dances came to be performed in secular situations. For example, when Muslim rulers took power in India some forms of Hindu dance began to be given at court. Similarly, erotic dances originally offered in the worship of Shiva or the fertility cults of the Middle East became an accomplishment of courtesans and slave girls.
The rites that the whole community performed became the basis of folk dance the whole world over, and dances to select a mate have developed into modern paired social dances. Many dances provide an opportunity for solo display and introduce a competitive element, such as the back-bending limbo dancer trying to dance beneath the lowest pole - a Caribbean dance that has its roots in West Africa. Many folk traditions include this element and it periodically reappears in social dance - as in contemporary jazz and break dancing.
East and West
Every culture has evolved its own dances, but some broad differences seem to exist between Eastern and Western forms. Dances of European origin usually cover space, the pattern of the dance being a floor design or the interaction of bodies. Far Eastern dances are often performed from a fixed position with the pattern being contained within the reach of the body. Eastern dance makes complex and subtle use of the hands and fingers, whereas in the West the hands are often held passively. However, this was not true in Classical times, as we can see from Seneca's description of Roman performers: 'We admire the dancers because their hands can describe all things and all sentiments, and because their expressive gestures are as quick as words. Every change of the position of the hands and of the individual fingers expresses a different meaning.'
The Christian Church in general came to disapprove of dancing, partly because of its association with pagan faiths and partly because of its sensuality. There were a few isolated cases of ritual retaining dance, but it is only in relatively recent years that, along with other kinds of performance, it has been welcomed back in some Churches. There are still extreme groups who consider any dancing sinful - although the Bible describes King David dancing 'before the Lord with all his might', and the Psalms call for dance in praise of God. There are also sects such as the Shakers and the Holy Rollers for whom dance is an integral part of their devotions.
* OPERA
* MUSIC FROM AROUND THE WORLD
* FOLK AND SOCIAL DANCING
* CLASSICAL BALLET
* MODERN DANCE
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The World of Dance (page 3)
ftsTitle
Basque Flamenco dance has its origins in Gypsy, Andalusian, Arabic and possibly Spanish Jewish folk song. The dance was originally spontaneous with intricate steps, including toe and heel clicking, for the men and graceful hand and body movement rather than footwork for the women.
The World of Dance (3 of 3)
Medieval and Renaissance dance
Although dancing was turned out of the Church, people enjoyed it too much for it to be totally suppressed. Many folk dances continued as festive dances, although their symbolism might not be openly acknowledged. In the castles and palaces of medieval Europe the nobility turned the peasant dances into stately parades and developed more formal steps. By the 15th century dancing teachers were common and rules for dances were set down. Teachers took a newly fashionable dance from one court to another, and in addition the development of printing made it easier to disseminate new music, so helping to spread the dances that went with it.
Court dancing tended to be very ordered - in Italy in particular - with suites of different dances performed in sequence. These suites became a formal spectacle and for special occasions might be linked with verse and songs on a particular theme (often from Classical mythology) to form an elaborate entertainment with sumptuous costumes and ornate settings. Dance episodes were also incorporated in the pageants to welcome important visitors and even inserted in revivals of Classical drama.
The Florentine princess, Catherine de' Medici (1519-89), was a particularly notable dance enthusiast. Following her marriage to the French king she promoted many such entertainments, in which the whole court took part. Later, as queen mother, then regent, she even used such masques or ballets - as they came to be known - as a political tool. In one, La Defense du Paradis (1572), her son Charles IX defended the earthly paradise against attack by the Protestant Henri of Navarre. A few days later, thousands of Protestants were killed in the St Bartholomew's Day Massacre - an atrocity for which she is largely held responsible. However, court ballets usually ended with a scene of concord and harmony and were followed by a ball in which performers were joined by spectators, symbolically bringing them into accord with the ideas expressed.
In Italy spectacles placed a growing importance upon singing, leading to the development of opera as the fashionable form with dance only a subsidiary component. At the French court, however, dance remained most important. In the 17th century, when Louis XIV made many triumphant appearances as a dancer, it was France that provided the most sought-after dancing masters and it was in France that the strict forms of classical ballet were developed.
Ladies and gentlemen dancing to a flute and drum. In the 15th century European court dances derived from the village dances of medieval Europe.
Folk and Social Dancing (1 of 3)
Folk dances, the traditional dances of particular areas, are dances that have evolved rather than been invented. They often retain features that once had magical and ritual significance. Emphasis is usually on the group, although pairs or individuals may be featured or encouraged to give bravura displays. Social dances developed from courtship dances and, although some may involve unison dancing by the group, the emphasis is usually placed on couples.
The traditional dances of Africa, Asia and the Pacific are usually more closely related to early rituals than are European folk dances. They might best be described as ethnic dances, although they are now often performed as tourist or theatrical attractions.
European folk dance
European dances may have become divorced from magic and ritual but their origins are often still clear to see. The horn dance performed annually at Abbot's Bromley, England, by a band of men wearing deer's antlers, is a direct link with Stone Age animal worship. The hora of eastern Europe, the sardanas of Catalonia and many similar dances use a closed magic circle with hands held or linked by handkerchiefs. There are winding chain dances - of which the conga is a modern equivalent - whose serpentine forms may have some link with snake worship. Maypole dances are reminders both of tree worship and fertility ritual. There are numerous 'battle' dances - such as the morris dance - which perhaps originally represented the fight against the darkness of winter, but which have subsequently become linked with historic battles.
In most folk dances women have gentle gliding movements and small steps, while leaping and kicking is reserved for men. Male dancing often allows for a competitive display of athleticism. In the Tyro-lean courtship dance, the Schuhlplattler, the man circles his partner with much stamping and slapping of knees, thighs and heels, and sometimes even turns somersaults and cartwheels and jumps right over the woman. The Cossack kicks out from a full knees bend, and in flamenco dancing the Spanish Gypsy stamps out the staccato rhythms of the zapateado - although in this case the women are almost as exhibitionist and flamenco has always been a performance rather than a communal dance.
Folk dances often incorporate imitative gestures. They may copy the movements of an animal or mimic work activities. Farmers' dances use the movements of sowing, reaping and haymaking, while sailors haul on ropes and fishermen on nets - one Danish dance even uses the actions of women washing clothes.
European court dances
The social dances of the nobility at first differed little from formal peasant dances. The basic medieval dance - the basse danse, or low dance - used small gliding steps with only a lift onto the toes, the feet scarcely losing contact with the floor. There were also haute, or high, leaping dances, but such steps were probably mainly for men, rather than for women with their long trains and high headdresses.
The circling glide of the 13th-century carole was danced to grave religious music, but with the new brighter secular music of the 15th and 16th centuries came faster livelier paces, made easier when heels were added to shoes, and skirts became shorter. The pavane and the allemande were still stately processional dances, but the sarabande involved advances and retreats and couples passing between rows of dancers, while the courante included the elegant bending of the knees. Then there was the sprightly jigging galliard and the twirling volta, in which the woman was lifted from the floor and bounced upon the man's knees.
Another lively dance was the gavotte, developed from a Provencal folk dance. It gave each couple a chance to dance on their own and reached its greatest popularity in 17th-century France at the court of Louis XIV. Another favorite at the French court was the delicate minuet, which often followed the boisterous gavotte as a contrast. Based on a figure-of- eight folk dance from Poitou, the minuet was to become fashionable through out Europe in the 18th century.
'Country dancing'
In Britain in the 17th century, lively long ways (facing rows) and circle dances became very popular. They involved simple walks, runs, and skipping and hopping steps, often with couples changing position within a set. In 1650 John Playford (1623-86) published The English Dancing Master, which describes a great many different forms. They were taken up in France and Italy and taken across the Atlantic by American colonists where, with promptings from a caller, they became the popular American square dance.
London's Vauxhall Gardens, opened to the public in 1660, became a favorite venue for dancing and music. The pleasures to be found there eventually became notorious, and the Gardens were closed in 1859.
Folk and Social Dancing (2 of 3)
The waltz
In Austria the L
ndler, a traditional dance in which the partners turned in each other's arms with a hop and a step, was taken up at court. Simplified to make it easier in fashionable clothes and on smooth ballroom floors it emerged in the early 19th century as the waltz. It spread slowly because the physical contact involved scandalized so many people. In 1818 the London Times called it 'that indecent foreign dance' and felt it a duty 'to warn every parent against exposing his daughter to so fatal a contagion' - and that was with considerable space between the partners. It took nearly a century before the bodies actually made contact in the close embrace that dancers use today. Nevertheless, its popularity grew and it became the leading ballroom dance of the 19th century.
The waltz and the bouncing polka, which appeared in the middle of the century, both allowed improvisation by the dancers. Although some new group dances were developed - such as the Paul Jones and the lancers in the 19th century, and the serpentine conga and the jokey hokey-cokey in the 20th century - the emphasis now shifted to couples dancing together.
* FOLK MUSIC
* POPULAR MUSIC IN THE 20TH CENTURY
* THE WORLD OF DANCE
* CLASSICAL BALLET
* MODERN DANCE
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Folk and Social Dancing (page 3)
ftsTitle
THE MORRIS DANCE
Folk and Social Dancing (3 of 3)
New rhythms
Most of the new dances of the 20th century originated in America, and had their roots in the offbeat syncopated rhythms originally brought by Black slaves from Africa. Other influences included the jigs and clog dances of Irish immigrants and the mixing of African, Spanish and Portuguese styles in Latin America. Often dances have been in vented for particular shows or films, or to promote sheet music and record sales.
At the beginning of the 20th century the most important innovators were the American husband-and-wife team, Irene and Vernon Castle. They introduced new steps in public exhibitions of ballroom dancing and popularized the one step, the foxtrot, the tango (already introduced from Argentina by Joseph Smith), and many other dances, usually accompanied by syncopated and jazzy music. Later dancing couples, like Fred and Adele Astaire, gained equal fame as exhibition dancers, but were not dance makers.
The 20th century has seen rapid changes of fashion in music and dance. The Jazz Age of the 1920s saw a succession of zany dances, including the kicking and flexing knees of the charleston. The samba, rumba and cha-cha all have Latin rhythms and have become established ballroom dances. The lindy hop, in which the male partner broke away to improvise, developed into the jitterbug or jive, which in the 1950s was danced to rock-and-roll music. With rock-and-roll there also came the twist in the early 1960s, and with the punk rock of the later 1970s came the pogo, which simply involves jumping up and down as energetically as possible. In contrast, only the hips and arms move to the Jamaican reggae beat, while the feet stay more or less rooted on the spot.
Freestyle
The foxtrot, jitterbug, twist and many modern dances consist of basic steps on which to improvise rather than formal dance patterns. Now dancers often invent their steps and body movements. They do not necessarily mirror a partner, and in discos lone dancers may often be seen giving a display of individual virtuosity.
The 1980s saw the introduction of robotics, based on angular, jerky mechanical-looking movements, and break dance, which features acrobatics and ground spins pivoted on the head and shoulders. Both might as often be seen on the street or subway as in dance hall or disco and they are not really social dances but performances.
THE MORRIS DANCE
The English morris is traditionally danced by men, although women's groups exist. Bells are worn on the legs and dancers are often given characters, such as Maid Marian, a horse, or more contemporary figures such as a policeman. The name, originally 'Morisco' or 'Moorish' dance, links it with Los Matchinos of Spain and New Mexico, which nominally celebrate the expulsion of the Moors from Spain in the 15th century. The flat sticks or poles that are interwoven into a 'knot' at the end of the dance were originally swords, and the knot may once have displayed the head of an ancient blood sacrifice.
* FOLK MUSIC
* POPULAR MUSIC IN THE 20TH CENTURY
* THE WORLD OF DANCE
* CLASSICAL BALLET
* MODERN DANCE
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Classical Ballet (page 1)
ftsTitle
Rudolph Nureyev and Margot Fonteyn (1919-91) rehearsing together. Nureyev was the greatest male dancer of the 1960s and early 1970s with astounding virtuosity and a charismatic stage presence. In 1962 he began a partnership with Margot Fonteyn, who already enjoyed a reputation as one of the finest female dancers.
Classical Ballet (1 of 2)
Ballet is a theatrical dance form based upon a set of positions, steps and expressive gestures that demand considerable skill and training. Ballet may tell a story or offer abstract patterns of movement. Though generally aiming at an appearance of effortless grace, it can also be highly dramatic. Balletic entertainments were first developed in the French court in the 16th century, but ballet companies in many countries have created their own distinctive national styles.
There are several ways in which ballet differs from other forms of dance. Most obvious is the 90 deg 'turned-out' position of the feet, which permits a remarkable degree of balance in all positions. Ballet also requires a tension and arching of the foot and Achilles tendon to provide a powerful jump and to cushion landing. Dancers begin training at a very early age to achieve the positions required, and must continue to exercise every day.
The beginnings of ballet
In 1661 the French king, Louis XIV, established a group of dancing instructors, the Acadumie Royale de Danse, to codify court dances. Its director, Charles Louis Beauchamp (1636-1705), is credited with inventing the 'five positions', though he may just have followed existing practice. As greater skills were demanded of performers, trained professionals began to replace the aristocratic amateurs who had previously participated in courtly entertainments.
Louis XIV danced his last role in 1670, and this made it less fashionable for amateurs to perform. After the founding of the Acadumie Royale de Musique et de Danse under the composer Lully in 1672 there was a permanent demand for professional dancers. In 1713 the Paris Opura - as the theater of the Acadumie became known - established a permanent company of dancers and a school to train them.
Dancers in the ballets that featured prominently at the Opura wore heavy court costume and hid their faces behind masks. This was supposedly because they thought that ancient Greek performers wore them, but it may have had as much to do with the fact that court ladies had preferred to disguise their faces, and also that at the Opura female roles were danced by men. It was not until 1681 that a woman professional danced at the Opura .
Ballet redefined
The early ballets had consisted of a succession of dances with music and poetry, but from 1661 the actor-dramatist Moliere began to use dance as part of the action in his plays. At the Opura , ballet was still accompanied by vocal music providing a text, but interest grew in making ballet a dramatic form in which the dance itself carried the story and emotion.
The greatest instigator of change was Jean Georges Noverre (1727-1810). Noverre created dances in London for David Garrick's Drury Lane Theater, and also in Stuttgart and Vienna - both of which he helped to make important ballet centers - before becoming ballet master at the Opura in his native Paris in 1776. Noverre's aims were to get rid of heavy wigs, masks and big padded skirts, and also to introduce more natural gestures into dance along with a greater emphasis on dramatic action.
Although the male star Gaetano Vestris (1729-1808) had abandoned his mask when dancing at the Opura in 1770 there was considerable resistance to Noverre's reforms in France. They were adopted most fully in Denmark in the work of August Bournonville (1805-1879), son of one of Noverre's pupils. A free, more lyrical technique with realistic characterization is still typical of Danish ballet.
However, long before Noverre's arrival some changes had been initiated. La Camargo (Marie Anne de Cupis de Camargo, 1710-70) was acclaimed for her jumps, especially the entrechat, in which the feet beat together in the air. She danced in heel-less slippers to aid her footwork, which she displayed to better effect by shortening her skirts to mid-calf. While La Camargo made her name as a technician, her contemporary and rival Marie Sallu (1707-56) placed more emphasis on plot and interpretation.
* OPERA
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* MODERN DANCE
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The five positions in Ballet.
Classical Ballet (2 of 2)
Romantic ballet
Sometime after 1800 women began to dance 'on point' (on the tips of the toes), stiffening the ends of their slippers to give more support. Pointwork became a key feature of choreography for women. It requires strengthening of the muscles in foot and leg and can cause injury if attempted prematurely.
As in the other arts, the fashion now was for Romanticism, which in ballet took the form of stories of princes in love with nymphs and of unrequited love. The Romantic style was exemplifed by Giselle, first danced in 1841, in which the spirit of an abandoned country girl appears to her untrue princely lover.
Milan became important for ballet in the Romantic period because the ballet master at La Scala, Carlo Blasis (1797-1878), was a famous teacher. The practice exercises which he developed - with deep knee bends and stretching of the feet and thighs - still form the basis of the dancer's daily class.
Although there were still some virtuosi male dancers, in Romantic ballets men tended to be mere partners, literally supporting the women. Even ostensibly male roles were often danced by women dressed up as men. A famous example is the role of Franz in Coppelia (created 1870), although this ballet has a more lively plot and structure than earlier Romantic ballets.
Russian ballet
A French dancer and choreographer, Maurice Petipa (1822-1910), and a Danish teacher, Christian Johansson (1817-1903), were responsible for a particular flowering of ballet in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. Ballets like the still popular Sleeping Beauty and Swan Lake (both to Tchaikovsky's music) filled the whole evening. Dancers achieved a distinctive national style, making ballet the equal of opera in artistic status.
In 1919 the impresario Serge Diaghilev (1872-1929) mounted a season of Russian ballet in Paris, calling his company the Ballets Russes. His dazzling dancers and stunning stagings attracted wild enthusiasm. For the next 20 years Diaghilev toured his company in Europe and the Americas, creating a new enthusiasm for ballet and launching the careers of many international stars.
Several of today's great ballet companies have their origins in Diaghilev's company. George Balanchine (1904-83), founder-choreographer of the New York City Ballet, Ninette de Valois (1898- ), founder of Sadlers Wells (now the Royal) Ballet, and Marie Rambert (1888-1982), who shares with de Valois the credit for the creation of British ballet, are only a few of the key figures who were at one time members of his company.
Modern ballet
Russia has continued to produce superb dancers such as Galina Ulanova (1910- ) and Maya Plisetskaya (1929- ) and several who have made their names in the West: Rudolph Nureyev (1939-93), Mikhail Baryshnikov (1948- ) and Natalia Makarova (1940- ). Innovation and experiment, however, have shifted else-where. Many countries, from Canada to Japan, Cuba to Australia, now have major national companies. Choreographers like Jerome Robbins (1918- ) in the USA, Frederick Ashton (1904-88) and Kenneth Macmillan (1929-92) in Britain, the Dane Harold Lander (1905- ), Roland Petit (1924- , French), John Cranko (1927-73, South African but working mainly in Britain and Germany), and Jiri Kylian (1947- , Czech, working in Holland) have extended the vocabulary of dance while remaining within the classical world.
DIAGHILEV'S BALLETS RUSSES
No impresario has ever brought together such a dazzling display of great artists from every field. A few of them are listed here.
Choreographers and dancers included: Michel Fokine (1880-1942), Anna Pavlova (1881-1931), Vaslav Nijinsky (1889-1950), Tamara Karsavina (1885-1978), Leonide Massine (1895-1979), Serge Lifar (1905-86), Bronislava Nijinsky (1891-1977), George Balanchine, Anton Dolin (1904-83), Alicia Markova (1910- ).
Designers included: Alexandre Benois (1870-1960), Leon Bakst (1866-1924), Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), Henri Matisse (1869-
q1954), Andru Derain (1885-1954), Marie Laurencin (1885-1956).
Composers included: Claude Debussy (1862-1918), Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971), Sergei Prokofiev (1891-1953), Francois Poulenc (1899-1963), Eric Satie (1866-1925).
Ballets included: Les Sylphides (originally created for Marykinsky Theater, 1906), Scheherazade (1910), Firebird (1910), Le Spectre de la Rose (1911), Petrushka (1911), L'Aprus-midi d'une faune (1912), The Rite of Spring (1913), Parade (1917), The Three-Cornered Hat (1919), Les Noces (1923), Apollon Musagete (1928), The Prodigal Son (1929).
* OPERA
* THE WORLD OF DANCE
* MODERN DANCE
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Classical Ballet (page 2)
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Modern Dance (page 1)
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In Lachrymae, by the Richard Alston Dance Company, the dancers make use of the shapes and forms human bodies can make in space.
Modern Dance (1 of 2)
Reaction against the formal rules of classical ballet saw the development of freer styles during the 20th century, and these styles are collectively known as modern dance. Like all the arts, dance has been affected by contemporary ideas in other areas. Modern dance may reflect the minimalist ideas found in late 20th-century music and painting, use as its materials a combination of natural movements, or follow idiosyncratic individual inspiration.
Dancing as a component of more popular stage entertainment - sometimes de scribed as show dancing - has its roots in earlier troupes of fair and street performers, which usually included dancers and acrobats. Dancing girls were also a feature of private entertainment in many cultures, and stage dance sometimes exploited the exorcism and erotic elements of non-European styles, as well as the acrobatic skills of performers. Stage dancing often also reflected existing folk and social dances, but was sometimes a result of the dancers' own invention. Today, the gap between modern and show dance has narrowed, as each draws on the influence of the other.
Show dancing
One of the most famous show dances is the high-kicking, leg-twirling cancan, which emerged in Paris in the 1840s, and which was widely copied in musical comedy and burlesque theaters. However, the biggest influences on show dancing, in the 20th century were tap and jazz dancing, which were exclusively American developments.
The minstrel shows of 19th-century America offered a mixture of Irish jigs, clog dances and African stamping, and this mixture evolved into a new style from which two main dance forms developed: an active, fast dance done in wooden-soled shoes that became known as buck and wing, and the smooth, relaxed soft-shoe shuffle.
By the mid-1920s, when steel tips were introduced so that shoes would make more noise, tap dancing was combining both forms. It was mainly a male style, with dancers such as Bill 'Bojangles' Robinson (1878-1949) and Fred Astaire (1899-1987) developing more and more complex footwork. But women were very much involved in group precision dancing featuring both tap and high kicks. Such chorus lines became a feature of a number of spectacular revues, and groups such as the Rockettes at New York's Radio City, the Bluebell Girls in Paris and the Tiller Girls in London put on remarkable displays of technical skill.
Free forms
At the forefront of a reaction against the formal constraints of classical ballet were three Americans, all influenced by the ideas of Francois Delsarte (1811-71), a Frenchman who had analyzed gesture and movement.
Isadora Duncan (1878-1927) sought to express emotion through dance based on the grace of natural movement, and to this end she danced barefoot and in a costume modeled on ancient Greek dress. She found success in Europe, where she may have influenced Fokine's early work for Diaghilev. In 1920 she was invited to start a school in post-revolutionary Russia, but neither this nor her schools in Germany and the USA survived, although her influence persisted.
Like Duncan, Ruth St Denis (1879-1968) first attracted attention with recitals for fashionable New York parties. St Denis and her husband Ted Shawn (1891-1972) also sought a free dance form, but they explored folk and national dance for their inspiration, especially that of the Orient. They opened the Denishawn School in Los Angeles, and subsequently Shawn's all-male company helped to break down prejudice against male dancers.
Graham and Cunningham
A dancer with St Denis's company for some years, Martha Graham (1894-1991) eventually tired of its mixture of styles and its exotic decors. From about 1927 she developed a new style, apparently angular and abstract but rooted in the expression of emotion. Like St Denis's style it emphasized contact with the ground, as in oriental dancing, rather than the constant attempt to escape gravity typical of classical ballet. Instead of trying to hide the effort of the dancer, Graham's approach celebrates the energy of muscular action. To equip dancers for the demands of her style she evolved a highly developed training system.
Graham's pupils and members of her company - such as Robert Cohan (1925 - ), director of the London Contemporary Dance Theater - continue her influence. Another of Graham's protegus, Merce Cunningham (1919- ), rejected her strong links to story and meaning to create a more abstract dance, sometimes involving elements of chance. In one piece he even breaks off a virtuoso dance sequence for some unrelated activity like riding a bike. Paul Taylor (1930- ), a dancer with both Graham's and Cunningham's companies, has incorporated everyday movement into his lyrical ballets.
* FOLK AND SOCIAL DANCING
* CLASSICAL BALLET
* EXPERIMENTAL THEATER
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Modern Dance (page 2)
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Soldat , a recent dance work by the choreographer Ashley Page, here performed by the Rambert Dance Company.
Modern Dance (2 of 2)
Laban and his followers
The Hungarian-born movement analyst and choreographer Rudolph Laban (1879-1958) was the theorist behind an important European modern dance movement. He founded a Dance Institute in Munich and later devised his 'Labanotation', a system of symbols to record all the body's movements, which is now the most widely used way of writing down dance. He paid much attention to the relationship between the individual and the surrounding space, also a feature of the choreography of his pupil Mary Wigman (1866-1973). Another pupil was Kurt Jooss (1901-79), whose expressionist anti-war ballet The Green Table (1932) became the most famous of modern works between the two world wars.
Contemporary dance
Recent years have seen the creation of many modern dance companies drawing on existing styles and experimenting with new ideas. Not only have choreographers invented new figures within the classical discipline, but techniques from various styles have been combined.
Classical purists have criticized choreographers such as the Frenchman Maurice Bujart (1927- ) for breaking all the rules of formal classicism in his spectacular theatrical ballets, but these have found particular favor with young audiences. Michael Clark (1962- ), the iconoclastic ex-Royal Ballet dancer, is gaining a new young audience by attempting to shock his elders. One of the best-known of the many innovative American choreographers is Twyla Tharp (1942- ), who has created works both for Baryshnikov and for the skater John Curry. She has choreographed work for the wide spaces of New York's Central Park, and experimented with texts and songs that parallel the dance.
All over the world there are many other talented choreographers extending the parameters of modern dance. Performers with a background in rock music, painting and sculpture, without formal dance training, have turned to using their bodies to create original movement works. With the increasing integration of styles, virtuoso disco and break dancers may also be called upon to display their skills within dance works.
New directions
Linked both to the idea of living sculpture and to Zen concentration on detail is a recent Japanese dance style known as butoh - in full ankoku butoh ('dance of utter darkness') - first developed by Kazuo Ohno (1906- ), his son Yoshito, and Tatsumi Hijikata (d. 1986). It features a slowly evolving transition from one shape to another - shapes that may be animals or even inanimate objects as well as human. But it can also encompass improvisation, as when a single dancer performs with a live peacock, mirroring and complementing the free movement of the bird.
Another recent movement is the German Tanztheatre, best known abroad through the Wuppertal company of Pina Bausch (1940- ), which demands a similar concentration of its audience to observe action that is frequently slow moving and repetitive. But Bausch's work, drawing its actions from ordinary daily life, is definitely about people, and her performers often speak. Sometimes beautiful images emerge, but Bausch seems more concerned with human bitterness, brutality and failure to communicate. For those with patience to develop empathy with the performers, Bausch's work can achieve a hypnotic power.
* FOLK AND SOCIAL DANCING
* CLASSICAL BALLET
* EXPERIMENTAL THEATER
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xPtxPpTt
LllPl
lltLtLlt
LlPplt
ptltplPl
tllPtp0
tpPtpHPt
y0UPtl,p,
t,HPLP(
PLHP(H$,H,
$t(PPL,t(P
,(PH,LPt(P
PpxPt
tPpTttLtPp
PltPlt
P$tLtlltPl
tltltLltLt
PpltlP
ltLlPpP
LtPplPt
U9:_>:
tpPpP
tLtlHPtpPp
HHPpHP
tp,tLtp
PL,p,t(t,L
tH,t(H
t(PL,L,t(,
t,L,H$PLP,
$P(,p,pP
LtxPpx
PpPtp
ltpllPl
ltLltltLlt
tLtlPpl
pltLtlT1
ltLtLt
tpPtpHPt
tLPpP
t(HPPL
P(,t(
PH,L,H
x,L$,L,(,L
,L,HP,(tt
tTtpTtPx
tLtTtPpPt
Plltplt
plPptlt
tLtpPp
p,pHPL
Ht(t(
H,L,PHP
,H,,LH,PH
,PPH,LPL
tpPpt
LltlPpP
pPllt
PpPpltplt
tLllPltp
tpltltlt
PpltLtlPpl
tLtLl,
lPtpPt
tPltpt,p
Ht(tPP
tptLPP
P(Ht(t,$,H
,LH,LH,(HP
PL,L,HP,p,
L,(P,$L,P$
PPLPt
ttLxtLxt
ptPpP
tLtPttLxP
pPltPpt
ltpltlTT
ltLltLltp
tlPpPlPp
tPpPpltPlt
ptltPltltU
1^>ltLtLtt
pPLPpHtpPp
tHPPp
ttLP(P
,pPLPP(
t(tH,PH,L
,t(P(PH,(P
P(P,$PH,(P
,,Lt,(t,
xTtpP
PpPtPptp
LtltL
ltltltltL
lttltLltLl
tLtPtHt
PLtHHPPLt
t$PL,HPLPH
,t(PH,pH,$
,p,,HP(PP
P,P(t(P(P,
(P,p,
PxtTttTx
PtPptP
TtpPtL
pPltlt
pltpt
llPpl
tLtPltL
ltltltlt
pPlPpP
lPpPltpllt
tptLtPpPpP
tPptPLPLPt
(t,p,p
,HtLP,
(H,LH,(P(P
,L,,H,LH,
(H,$t(P,p,
xtpttLxtLt
plt1P
tLtPpP
pltltp
PltptlPpPp
PptPp
ttLtt
t,pPHPLPp,
LPHPP(t
t(t(tp,H
,p,(t,p
tLPH,H,(P$
PL,L,,(P(t
,(,tLPPL,t
tTtxPtpt
PtPpt
lltPpltpl
tLltLT-
-1tlPltl
ltPpPltL
tLlPpltlt
^lPtH
tLtpttL
tPptt
pPptPLPt(,
P(H,L,H,
P(t(,HPP(P
,,L,H,(P$
P(,L,tPp
PxtPLTtT
xPtLt
ltltplt
PpltltPll
lPptltlltp
tpHPpPpP
tLPPp
,tp,tLPpPL
PP(t,$PH,(
P(,,L$t,(
P(P(,HPL,p
tpPptPpt
PpTtpPtpPt
ltlltp
PpPltltL
lPltlL
yPtlltLll
tpPlP
PpPtL
tpPplPlP
PHtLPp,
tPHtpHtL
H,(H,
,(t$P
LH,(,L,H,$
PP(PPt,p
xPxtTxtL
tPptPtLtp
tTtLtp
tPpPpPtxP
tltlt
P1(lPplltl
PpltLllt
tlPpltLtlt
V1^Tltp
tPpPp
HPLPpPPpP
tpPpt
,tL,(
PLP(Ht
P,L,,
LH,L,HP$,(
,L,L,,L,Lt
UttTtpPt
ptPtL
LtPpT
PlPtLllP
PltLltLltL
tPpPltlltl
ltLll
Pp,tLt(t(t
x,Lt(PHtH
PPHPL,t
(PPp,HH
(H,L,($PH,
H,,pP,ptt
xtTtpPpx
PpTtPtLtpP
pPxPt
Pptltl
TPpPltpll
PpPlP
PLtLt
tPpPtPTPpP
tLtt(
tHtH,pP
$PPpt
P,L,L,,
pH,(tH,(
tLxtPxtP
xPpxPptLtt
TtPxPt
pPtLt
LtLtP
lPlPlP
lltltltlt
tllLtl
tLt(tLHt(
tH,LtLtt(
PLt,p
HPLPH,p
LP$,(,H,
LH,L,HPLPP
TtxPxPxx
PpttLtPp
ltltltp
PpltLltL
tlltlPlPp
ptLtPHtpP
PLt,pH,
,(H,H,H,P(
t,LPPLH
xtTtx
PpxPpPttLt
PpPptP
lltll
tltltLl
ltltll
tLtPlPltp
tllPL
$PlPLP
tPp,p
P(P,($P(
tLtpPutT
ttLtt
LtPptPp
ltltLtltl
tltlPtplPp
tHt(t
tLPptH,p,t
,y]PPH,Lt
($,H$PL$,L
,,pH,
TtxPxxTt
pTtxPtpPtL
ttpPt
LtPpP
PtltL
lPltpll
tltLltll
PpHPpt(tHP
,tHt(tp,
t(tHPL-
l,H,$,$
,,$P($PL,,
xtLttT
PptLxxPt
Ltltl
pltlt
lPlltL
tPp,pH,
HtPL,
LtpPp
L,t,,(
L,(P(P
H,(H(,HPHP
tTtxTtpP
pPtLtP
PpPtp
Lltltl
tpPltL
PPp,P$,
lPt(H,$P
$,(H,H,P,L
,PLHPP
TxxUtxPx
tPpxtPp
pPpTtT
tPpPptx
PtlltltpPl
ltltp
tltpPlPltL
tLPPp,p
l$,L$,L
,P,($P(,$,
(H$P(
tpPtxPpt
PpPpPxttpP
PtpttT
ltltlPll
H,($P(
P$,($P($,L
,LP(PH,,HP
xPtxTttL
xtxPptPpPp
PttpP
plPltlt
ltpPt
Ltplt
,PptP
,H,L,H,P
($,,P$,$,
,LPpPLH
LtTtt
LtLtPpt
tLttT
ltlPlttLlt
PlltlltLl
P,(HPu
LH,L,($,($
,P$(P
PPHPHP
txPtpPpt
tPptTtp
tLttLt
PtLxP
PtpPt
lltltP
$PpPpPllt
H,MP,(
P$P(,yH,$P
(P$P($
L$,H,L,t(t
tLtpPxPt
LxtPptPptP
xtLtpTtptP
xtLxt
tlPpP
llPtpP
,t$t(tH,LP
,H,L,(H,$P
,L,H(H,L,
TtxPxttL
tpPxtLxtLt
tPpPtLt
PpPtP
LtLtLtP
-pPLP(PLP,
H,L,H,$P(,
L,L$,L,P,$
,$PHPL,H
tpPtLtLt
xPptTt
,p,L,PH,t(
H,P$t,L,,$
P$,$,$,L,(
P(P(,LP
tTtptPtx
PptPptPxtL
ttPxPxtp
ltLlP
,L$PL
P,p$P(H,L,
L,($,L,$$
$t$,PH,LP$
,ptPpPpP
xtPptTt
pPxPpP
tLt,P
,LPt(tH,p,
,L$,L,$
,$,$P(,$P(
,L,L,(PLP
pPxtTttp
tPptPptPpt
LtPptPpt
Llltl
ltLltlP
0Q0U0
H,P(Ht(PH
,LH,(
L,H,L,L,(,
$P$,$P
HPHPP
PtLxttLt
PptPpPtxtL
ltLtl
lPpPpPltp
tLtLtt
PLHPLPH,LP
P$,p$,H
,$,$PH
,$$,($,P(P
PtLtP
ptPptxPpPt
LP$$,
H,,LH,(H,(
t,H,L,H,,(
xPtpTtp
PpPtPpt
LtLtLtpPtp
LtLtt
t(,HP,LH,t
P(P$t(P($
,,L$P(,$,$
,L,$$P$,(H
PpxPtxPt
pPptPpt
tPpTt
tLtlltltPp
ttl,p,t
PLHtpH,
L,HP(t,PL
PL,L,
P,LH,L,$
,L$,H
($P(t(
xtPpxPpx
PtxPxtLtpP
TtPptpPpT
PpPtH
pH(t(
tpHPp
HtH,qH,PLP
l,H,LP
PLH,(
t$PH,P(P$P
H,(H,L$,(P
P(,$,
tPptLttL
txPptLttPx
tLtxPxtPpP
PplPllPt
PlPpl
t,ltH,p,LH
,(Pp,
PLPH,LP
PH,H,PH,(P
(tH,t(t(H,
H,,LH,L,H,
L$,$,($P
($P($PLP(
PxxPttLt
pPttLttLtp
PtpPtpPptt
tptPp
tlltlPpPpP
ltlPLH
(,p,p,p
P(tPHtL
m%%PP
Pt(,p
tHt(PHPL
HPH,$,t(,H
,(H,LH,L,$
$P$,H
,($t(,
tpPtpTtx
PptLttLtpP
tpPtLtxPtL
pPpPttL
tPtPq
PLtLlP
PptLP,pPPL
H,(P,L,(H,
H,L,(P($P(
PH,H,p
tTtpPptP
ptPxtLttTt
pPtptP
tLtPp
ltLltlPpPl
ltlPlPpP
,HPt(H,H
,p,pH,LP
,LH,(P(PH,
P$P,(,$
,L$,$,L
,L,(,L,LP,
PpyPtxPx
tLttL
tpPtLtPx
PtTtp
tltPpPtltl
tplPl
HPH,LPP
,HPL,HH,
H,(P$
P$,H,L,
$P$,H
,LH,t
xtTtpPtp
TtpTtpxPtp
TtpPtpPtPp
tTtpPtpP
tltLlltpPt
pPlPp
tLtPP
t(Ht(P(
LH,p,P(tQ(
t(HPLP(,,
P(PLPH,(H
,L,,L
(,$$P(
$,(,H,LPp
tLxtTt
ptPtTtLtpP
tPtpPtpt
PlttplPp
tH,HH
PP(H,L,PL
,(H,(
,HP$,
$P(,p$,$$,
$,P($
PH,LH
TtxPptxt
tLtptPxtPt
LtpTtTtp
tPxlt
tLllt
tltPptL
tpPpt,
lt(t,tp,
H,PH,LH,PH
,$t(H,p,
,L,H,PH,,L
,$,L$,(P$,
P(,P(
tpPpPxPp
TtPxPptPpx
PptPtp
tLtLtT
pPltplP
tLltLltlPl
HPtl,p$
tLPpPp
H,LH,(HPL
,PLP(,
PL,H,PH,L,
H,($,L$,L,
($$H$,L$
tTtxPtpP
ptTttPtptP
ptPpTtL
xPpTttx
PplltlP
tLltLltp
P,pPLtH
PH,LPL,LH,
HP(HP(t(H,
(H,LH,LH,L
$,$PH$,(,$
,$$,$
$,yPH
PpTttpPt
PtptLtLtPp
tPtpPt
TtPpTtt
ptltp
$tltpPltLl
tlPlP
$tLtplP
tLlPp
tLHtp
,Pp,l,$t(t
,L,,H
,P$PH,LH$,
H,LH,(P$,(
P$$P$
txtLtPpt
pTtTt
tLtpPtp
PxtLtP
ltPpt
,ltHPpP
PpPpPp
,pHPpPH
PL,t(HPL,L
HPH,LHt(HP
(,H,(PH,$,
L,H$,L$
H$P($,
,pPtptTt
PpttPpTtpt
PtpPt
PpPLt
lltltl
tltltlPltL
$tLtt
$,pPtp
ttLlt
lPLPP
(H,LPH,L
HP,(P(,
PH,L,L
(P($,$P$,
P$$,(
P(,L,(t
tTtpPtPt
pPpPpttLtP
PtpPtp
pPpPtp
PttLttpt
LttLt
tptLl
LtltLttpPt
LPH,t(t(tp
,,p,LHH,Ht
$t$P(H,H,
LHH,$P($,(
P,$$,$
HP,HPL
PtpPxPpy
PxttTtLtPp
tPtpP
Lltll
(ltLtLtPl
tLtLtt
tlPtl,
tpPpl
p,tHt(P
H,pHyH,t(P
,L$t($
t(P,$PP(PH
,L,L,$,L$,
$,(H,
$,L,(H,
pxPtpxtP
LPtLtpPtpP
ptxPxtPtPp
tLxPTt
LtLtlt
Pltlt
tplPH
tlPptH
PpPplt
,pH,L
H,H,p$PL
,H,LPLHH,(
H,H,L,L$P$
,L,L$
L$,HP(P,L
tPptPpPp
PtptP
tltLltPl
ltLtPl
PplPplP
PltLltl
tpPpHPlt
tLtplP
(tLHPLH,pH
,p,LHPPHPL
P(PH,(
,,L$$
P$,H,pt
PptLPTtP
ptPtLtpPpt
tPptT
pPpPt
,ltLtlltL
tLltLltLlt
ptlPltL
LtLtlPLtP
PPH,pH$
PHt(P
,LH,L
H,(H,
,$,L$,P
$,L,PHtL
txPtLttp
tLtLtxPxPt
PpPptPpP
PtpPtp
pPpPt
PpPlP
pPltltlltp
ltlPp
tHPtL
LltLlPp
PHPLt
LPp,(H,
P(t$P$P$,
H,H,$,L
(P,$P
($,(,
tLtptLtP
pPttpPttx
tTtPptP
tpPxPtptL
,lPltLltlt
ltlltLtPp
ltltLtlPlt
PtLtHPp
tltplHt
,p,tL
HtHtLP,LH,
pH,L,,PLH,
H,H,H,$P,H
,,$P($,(P(
H,L,$,L,$,
P$P,pP
TtxPtPpt
TtxLtLtLtP
tPtLttL
PpPltll
tLltLltLtt
tptHP
ptLHPpH,pH
PL,LHP
pH,pH,LH,P
LH,LPLH,L,
,L$,($
(,P(,,pH
ptLtTxtP
ptPtPxttLt
xtLttL
PpPpPtp
PlPplt
LltTltltLt
tLltLt
tpH,p
,tHHPt(t,
(PH,pH,LH$
,LH,p,H,H,
,(P,L
$P$,($,L,
(P(P$,L$$P
tPxtptLx
tPptpPtLtt
LtPttLtLt
txPxtL
tpltLlltlP
ltltpPltPl
tpPlt
tPPptltLlP
pPtLt
,pPPLtLPp,
,LHt(
Ht(tH,(H,
P(P,LPP
P(H$P(P$P(
$,L$$,$,$P
P(,LPt,
PpPtTtPt
(ttLtPptTt
ptPptLt
tLtpPp
PlPlPpt
tLltL
tlltlPpt
l,pttL
t,HPL
,PH,P
,LH,(,
H,$t(P$
,$,$,L,
(,,L$P
txtTPLtp
tTtxPxtPpP
tLttLtPpT
tLtPpttP
ttltllt
PpltLltlPp
tllPl
lPHPp,H,p,
PLH,tH
H,pH,L
,,H,L,L
,H,(PHU$,
,P,(tt
tLtLxtTt
PpPptpPx
tLtLtt
PpltL
tltlPltpl
lPltLtlt
tpPltLtl
tLtHt
P(HP(
H,LH,(
$,LH,L$,H,
(,P(,$,L
$,$,P(
,LPPL
,x,tpPpt
(ttTtPytLx
LtPxt
lltlt
LltlltLl
ttlltLl
tLlPplt
ltLltLtltp
PHPH,
t$PHPLH
,LH,LHP(
$PH,(,HPL,
PHP(P(P$,L
,H,$,
PL,tp,
pPtpPxPx
ttLtLtpPxP
pPptLttLtp
tTtPpPx
lltlPtpl
tltltltLtt
pPLtPL
PL,t,LPP$P
(,LPP(P
PL$,,
(PH,L,,H
,(,$,(P$$,
($$,(P
H,LP$
Pt(t,tpP
pPtxtTttPt
tPxPpT
tlPpltLltL
tH,p,H,
L,HP,LH,LH
HPH,Lt$,L,
,LH,L,$P$,
$$,(P
$,,HP
tLtxPpPx
PtxPpPtLtP
pPpTtp
ltltpltL
Ltltplt
LlPpltltLl
ttlPptlP
t(tLP
PH,pt(Ht(t
H,HPL,LPHt
(H,p,L
$P(P$,$,(H
$,L,P(,P(,
$,$,p,,p
x,tLt,pt
(tLtPtpT
TttpPtx
tlltl
ltltplPpPp
ltlltlPplt
ttLttP
tlPpl
tHt,pt
H,pPHtLHtp
,Ht,HPL,p,
LH,H,H,HPL
P(,H,p,$
,(P($P(,$H
,(PH$,L,$$
P(P($
(PLPP
LtTtLPxP
tp,tpTttpP
pPxPt
pPptPtLtP
txtLt
llPlP
tplPpltltl
LlPltL
tLtltp
ltLtPpPH
PpHtp$,tL
PL,p,tHH,H
,PH,H,t(P
PLH,L,p,(t
(P,H,,$P(P
,H,pt
t,ptPtLt
pPtpPtPpTt
tpPtpPx
ttPtL
PltlP
tpllt
ltLtltlt
ttLtPp
Pp,ttp,tP
,PLH,Lt,
PL,pPP(
PHP(H,H,PH
,H$,P(P$,H
,(P$,(P$,$
L,P(P
$,HHP
,ptPx(tx
PxLt,pxttP
pPptPtpPtP
xPptP
tLlPpt
tLlPpltll
PlPtltlt
ltLtLttplt
tHtt(H
Pp,ptLtp,P
Ht(tP(tLP,
pP(t(t
,(P,$PL
,H,L,p$
,L$P(H,P(P
,L,pH
txPp,ttL
tt,tpPtLtL
ttPptpPpxt
tPptt
PptPt
tlltpllP
Pplltlt
tplPpltLtP
pltLltlPpP
HPpPtH,p,
PH,H,P(
,LPH,(P,$H
,L,L$$,,(H
,,(P,($$,H
P(P(t
tLt,xtLt
,pPpPpxtPt
pPpPpPttPp
pPtLx
tPpPt
PltLtlPplP
PltllPpltL
ltlltLlltl
PpltPp
tHPLPHt(,t
LPHtH,p,pP
(HPLP
H,LHP
,p,$H,L,H$
,(,L$H,,LH
,$,p,
Ttp,pPtp
,tpttTtLtp
PttpPtpPpP
tpPtLPpx
tltlltlt
tltltplt
tlltLltplP
,pH,Ht(
PL,PP(
,L$PLP,
PL,$,P(
$PH,$,L$,L
,$P,(P($,$
(PxtH
tpPpPPpP
pxPtUtPxtP
ptLPtpPptt
LtPpt
tlPlPp
tLlltL
ltPlPltLlt
LltpP
PLPHH,p,
PHH,L
P(HP(,H$P
,L,P$P$P
H,L,L
,$,L,L$
P(,PHPL
0PPTPLPt
tLtLxtLtPp
PxttpPtTtL
ttPpPpTt
PpPtt
tLtltpPlt
tPpltL
ltLltlt
PtLtPtl,
,ptpPL
PH,tp,
tH,p,t(P
$t(,t($PH,
LH,L,L,P(H
,(P,(,H,L$
P($$,$P($,
L,H,HH
tpxPtxtL
PxtLPttLtL
tPptLtPL
tPtpPtLt
tPpPp
tltLltp
ltllt
ltplt
tltLltL
tltLltLtpP
l,pPH,
$,pH,p,tL
,(Ht$
HPLHPP(H,P
(t$PH,
,(H,P(P(H
,P($,,L$,$
$$,$,,
xPpPLPxP
t(xPLPtPpt
(tptPptTtL
xPtpPpx
pPtpPtLt
Pltltl
PpltPl
tpPpt
lPltLtLllt
LttlPltlPx
tHtLP,tp,t
P(t,Lt
P(t(H,p
,HH,pH,LPP
,L,L,H,L$,
H,H$P
($,H,P(H
($$,(
L$,LH,Ht
PPTt,
yPPLt,pPtp
pPtLtPtptP
tpPpPtLttT
tltlPpltLt
lPlPt
tlPpltltlP
tltLtPp
tLtpP
$PpH,p,LH,
LH$,(H$P
LH,LH,$PH,
(,L,$,L$P(
H$,P$P(,
,(tp,
t(ttp,tp
,ptTtLtPpP
pttLtptLtT
tLttL
tLtLtPx
plPpll
lPplt
tltlt
tPltltLl
tpPltplPlt
,LHP,pHPHH
,p,p,
,H,LH,L,t(
,LHP$,L$,P
$,L,L$,$P$
P($P($
P(H,HPt
0tLPTtLt
TtTtLPtp,p
PtLttTtPpt
LtpPtLttLt
ltltpt
lPltlPtlt
PLtPLP(PPL
PLH,t
t(,,LPLH
,pH,LH,
,Ht(PH
P(HP$P
(,H,$P(PH,
$,(PLtL
t(t,pPTt
pPtLPtLPtx
tLttLtPptP
pttLtt
LtptLt
plPpPlPllP
ltLtLltltl
PptlPp
PHPp,
t(tHtLt
PLHPLPPLH
,pHt$t(
P,Hx$P,H,H
P,(,,
,,H,LP
L$$,L
$P(PH
PxtLttPt
TPLtPxPtLt
PxtTttptLt
LTtpPtT
tPpPttPx
Lltltlt
tLltlt
tPpltL
ptPpHP
,l,p,
,pH,L
t,L,(H,H,t
(P(P(,
(PHH,H,H,L
,PH,P($,P,
,H,(t(PH
p,xPPLxP
pxtPptLxtP
ptPpPxPxPt
PpPptPp
xPpPtpP
LtptL
tLttpP
PtLll
ltLltLtlPl
tlltl
PpltLlt
tLPPH,Mt
PL,,tLP
,L,P,(
H,Ht(PLH$H
P(PH,H
,L,L,(P$,,
(PP(,L,
,(P(t
tPptTtpx
,,Lxt
LxtLttLtpP
pltLt
LtltlP
Llltlt
ltlPltp
P$PpP
,PHPLH,L
,L,p,tHt(
HPLH,,HH,L
PH,H,HH,L
PH,H,$P$,L
,LH,(PH,$,
$P(PHPPp,
Ppt(xPtL
txxtLxtLPt
TtLxtxPtpP
txtLtPtptt
LtPpP
PtLtTtpPt
ltltl
tpPtLtltPp
PpltLttLtt
PPpPHH
PLHUtPL,p$
tH,pH,HPH,
p$,LPLP
QH,p$
,L,P(
P(P$,$,L,P
H,L,($,$,$
txPtPyxt
PpPtTtLttL
PtpPp
PtpTtLtPtp
PptPp
PpltL
tltlt
tlPplP
lPpPp
,t(t$,
HP(tHPpH,H
P,LPLPH,pH
P(t(H,L,HH
,L$H,(,
P,(H,(H,,$
$,LH,LHP
tLt(xtTx
UttTtpttLt
PpTttpPttp
PxPtpPpPtL
tpPttLt
lPtlt
pltpltpPlt
LtlPltltlP
PLt,pH,
PLHP,p
t(P,Lt(t
P(HPL
,P$P(,LH
,(P(HP(P$P
(PLH,L,L,(
$,,L,,tpt
TtTttPp,
pxPpPxPxPp
tTtpPtPpTP
ptpPxtPpt
xPtxLt
PltptltLtt
lPpltLltpP
ltplt
lPltL
ltLt(tHPLP
tHHPLtL,
,p,H,LH,L,
HPLPHt,
,p,PH,(P
,p,HP
(tLPH,$PH,
H,(H,L$$,,
L,,H,P$,L,
$,$,$$,
,tH(tP
tp,tLxtx
P,ptPtpPpt
xPtUtPtptT
PpPttpPtp
tPllPlPlP
tlLltltL
ltPlt
tHtLtHP
tHt$H
,pt(t$
PLHPHPH
H,p,,p$,HP
(PPL,t,LPH
,L,,L,L$,L
,L$,H,
(P(,P$,P(,
UtLxtLuL
tyPPxxPxtP
plPLPH
HPLPP(tt($
PH,p,(
t(PL,
,LH,P
P(tt(H,
,(,L$
P,(P,H,
(P,(P
,$$,L$PL,
ty,xPtxt
LtLxtLxtPp
tLtxPxPp
TtPxPt
PpPtp
t,pHPp,
t(tH,tH,(
t(,HP
L,p,PPL,H
PLHPL,$,(H
,P(,H,LH,P
H,$,H,LH,L
,HP$$P(P
$($,L$,L,H
tPxt(xPx
PxuPtxtLtx
PxtLt
TpTtptPpTP
ptpPtpP
,(tHP
HtHHPHPL
PH,H,HH(
p,PH,LH,L,
HP(H,L,,$,
$,H,(P,,L,
L$tLt
LtpPpTtLtt
tLttpT
TtLttp
ttLtPpPptP
lPPLtPPLH,
(P(tLPPLtP
LPp,H,LP(t
P(t(t,
(P(,p,,(P,
,(t,(HPP
H,LH,P(
,L,H,(H
P,$,,($,L,
tt(xPp0t
TPxtpPtpTt
tTtxPtLxPt
tLxPt
ltPptpPp
tHPHPHPL
,L$tHt(
pPH,LH,
,Ht,p
(PH,LH,L$,
tH,L,(P($P
L$P(P$,p
tLt(ttPp
PtPtTtxPtp
PpxPpTttpP
pPttpTtptL
pPtTttT
PpPpPptL
lPpPpt
tHtpP
t(HPP
,,pPP(t,
HtPLt,p,LH
P,pP$P
L,Pt(P(H,(
,LHH,HP
H,p,L,H,$P
$,P(,L,($P
(P,$,H
xPxPtTpt
y,xlxPptpP
txPpPtLxPt
PpPpPtLt
tptPpt
tpPtp
tp$tLtP
t(tp,PLt(
P(tLP
p,p,(PH,p,
tLt,P(
$LH,H,
(,P(HP,$t(
(H$,P(tLt
PpxtLtPt
LtLxTtPpPt
pPPtpTttPx
pxtPxPpPt
PpPpPpPtL
lltlP
ltLtt
tpHtp
(tPq,tH,H
tHt(P,pH,(
P$PH,P
(,L$P$H,(
L,(tH
x,tTtxPp
xPtpPtpPtp
PpxPpP
xPptLtPpP
ptPptPpt
PpPPtpPp
ltltLtPp
tLt(tLH
HPptPL
tHtHH,ptLP
PLPPHt(HPL
HxPLPPL,L,
,LH,(
PHP(P,(HP
(H,H,H,(P(
P(P(P($,
P($tH
tPptPpxt
PxTtxxPtpP
PpPtptPy
tLttLttpPt
tLxtLttPxP
tLttP
,pPp,
,pPLt
PLtPLPp,p,
PLPLPH,
,L$PHH
,LPP(H,(P$
P$,H,(P,$,
,(,t(lt
PpxPpPtP
pxtLtPpxPx
PtpttLtPxP
PtpPtPpPtp
PtpPp
tpPplt
ltLtltL
HPp,p
(tHPLP
,t(l,
$H,L$P(H,L
,,P(PH,(P
,$,L,$,(P(
H,LHt(
txPtxTtp
QtPxtxPp
LtPpPpt
PptpPptPp
PpPtpP
LtpPltpPtp
tLtPptp
,(HPLtpH
,pt,p
PLt,p
H,(t,p,LP
t(,p,PLH,L
P,H,(t$,HP
L$,H,(H,HP
$P$P$,(
uLtLtt(t
TtpPtLtPpP
pPtpPttTtT
tPptPyPt
tPpPptPp
PllPlt
LlPplPptP
lt(ltL
lPHPpPH
,pt(tt
tHtH,p
pH,LH,LHP(
,Ht,L,HtH
PL,LHPpP(P
H,(P,$P(PP
$,$$,
H,LH,LPt
xPxPpPxP
ptPpPtptPp
PtpPtpPptt
PptPpPtpPt
PttLtPt
PtLtL
tpPplP
tLtlPptL
tpH,p
Ht(l,LH
PLHHt(
Pp,H,LP
(H,,H,L,PL
P($,L
H,PLP(tt(
PxttTtPL
tP(tpTtLxt
tpPpP
xtPpt
tLtlPltLtt
LtPpltLtlP
tpPptL
,lPHtH,tp
PHt(tt(tHP
Ht(HtLtLHP
PLt,L
tLPH,H
P(t,LP
L,H,(P(H,H
,LH,$$,$,$
P($,t(
x,pTtpTt
pxttPpPPLt
TtTtpPx
pPptTxPtPp
ttPxttLtt
ltlPpPltlP
lltpl
PlltLt
tlPltp
tpt,t
tp,pH
PtLtHtH
,ptLP(t(
PLtH,p,L,
HH,(P(tHPL
,(P$,H,
(PLPLtt(
tTPLtPLP
tPpPpttpPt
pPtpPtpPxt
PxtTtpPpxP
lPtltl
tltLttpP
LtPl,ltpPl
LlPpPlPp,
PpHtL
Pp,tp
tPPLtHtL
pPL,tLHPp
PPLH,(
PHHPP
,L,LH
,(P$,H,,
Pptt(tTt
pPxPpPtpPp
tPptPptLtP
tptPptPtpt
PptpPtptp
LtLtLtl
ltLtPpPplt
lPptPpPlPp
tpHtL
PLtp,p
HPpHPPHtHP
tLPH,pH,
(t(tLt
PLHPLHPL,
(HPH,H,L,H
PLP$,L$,L,
$,L,,
xt(Px,tp
,Ppt(tpP
pPxtLtxPpt
TtPpPp
tpPxPpPxP
lltptPl
pPplPpltpt
PpPHP
PpHt(t
HPpPt
PLPHHP
tHtP(
LH,L,H,H,
,t,LH,PH,(
PLH,L$
LPtLt
-LtLPtpP
tpPTtTtLxP
PtpPpt
PxtLttPptt
PpPtL
Lltlt
LltltLtlP
ltlPtplPpt
PpltlttlPp
tpPpl
tHtLP
,Lt(t
PLHtH
,LPH,
(HPPpP
P(t(H
t$P(P(,$
P(P$,t(
xtxPtpPt
pPtxPpx
tPptLtTt
pPpPptPptt
pPptT
tLlPp
tlltlt
LtLtLttltL
tLtPpPtl
tLtpP
(tPLPtP
t(tpP
PPL,HtPL
,H,p,t
LPHPL,HPLH
,P(t(H,$P(
$,(P$,(PLt
uTt(xPTP
pPtLtLtt(P
tpPxtLtpTx
tPtpPtPttp
tPptP
tltlt
ltLtltLllt
tLltlt
ltLtLtl
lPlltLtLlP
tLPPp
PtHPp
tHPpt(
,pPPpt$
PPLt,
,(tH,
Ht(,LH,HL
,L,L,(P$
,(PHPP(
TPLtPPpt
PLTtPtpTtt
txPtp
PtlPtLl
PltpllP
tLltltlt
LttptLlt
lPpltlPptt
PplPpPpPlt
ptPLHtp
tpPpP
,HttLPLt(
tHtLHP(
t$PPLPP
(,p,LPPH,p
,PPL,H,H,$
P(,L$P(PpP
tptLtpPt
TLPttLtPtp
PpPtpPttpP
ttLttL
PxPpP
ltpPlt
Ppltp
tPltpl
PltltllPpl
ttLltlPpPp
PltpPlPltP
tLlPpP
plPplt
pPpHt
,t(PPt(
tHPHPL$t(P
,L,L,
P$P(t,tP
xPxPpPt(
ttLxPttTpt
LtpPtPptTt
LxPptLttLt
pPpPtLtP
ltltlP
lPltl
tLtpPptltL
ltlPplt
tPlPp
PpPtPp
t(ttLtt
tPpPLP
,tpt(t$tLt
PL$t(
P(P(tLPPH,
tL,p,$,L$
,L,(,p,
,pPtx,xP
tLtPptLtPt
xtPptptP
tLttLttLtP
lPllPpltLl
pltLlt
tlPllPpt
plPplt
LltLtPltHP
ptltpl
tlPtpPp
tpHlt
(lPpPtLPpP
tLlttLl
tp,HtLP
,HPLPt
(tLHtPH,HP
(tL,HPHPLP
(H,L,$PH,p
PtPpP
xtPLP
ptLxt(xtPt
ptLtPpPtPp
TtpPttLttL
TttpP
ltltp
ltLltLlltL
ltLltpPltl
tLltLltL
tLttlPplPp
tltlPtLlt
PltP$tp
PpttpPpH,
t,ptt
t(ttptL
P,p,LPLP(
PP(t,$P
$,H,(P$,p,
ptLl,
Pp,ttTtt
pPtpTtLtPt
TttLtpPptP
ptLtpT
Pltltll
tltlltlt
tltpl
pltpl
ttLltLtltL
tplPp
PpltLtPpll
ltLtlP
ttpPpPl
tLtPptptLt
tLPL,
HPHPPL
tH,L,LHt(
Ht(P$,LH,,
ptLt(tPp
PptPpttLtp
ttPptPp
tPtpPttLtp
ltLtPptl
ltllPpPplP
tLllP
pltLlltltL
lPltlPlltl
tplPpPltpt
LlltLl
PlPpPt
PLtPpPpPH
t(tpH,Lt(P
LHPP(PtL,t
(,H,p,
,L,$,LH,p,
tPtxPxxP
utTpPpPtpP
tPpxPp
LtpPtpTttP
tltlt
PlttlP
PllPpl
tLtllPlltP
pPtltl
tLtLlPpltl
PlPtLltL
ttPptLt
tptlPtpP
tpltp
tpPLPLtP
tpPHPl,p
,pPLtLH
PtpHt(
,$H,P(H,L
HPltL
,pxPtxPp
PptTtLxtLt
tPptPxtTtp
PlltltpPl
plltlP
tpltPlltpP
PltlPltltp
llPltpPpPt
pltPlttLtL
LtpPplPplP
tHPpt
PLHPLtt,LP
t$t(PL
P(t,LPP,L
,H,$PLPPl
txPqtPpt
TtLtLxtPtp
tpPttL
tTttTtpPp
PpllPpltp
ltltLtL
tLltLtpllP
plPptPtlPl
tLltLlP
ltpPptltlt
PtpPtLlHPp
tpPpt
t(tPHtP(t
PLPPLt$t$P
t(,pPP(
H,(P(P,L,p
tLxtLtxP
pttLttLtLt
PtLtLttL
LtltL
Pltlt
ltltlt
PpltLlltLt
tpltpllP
tltLltpllt
ltptlttltL
PtltL
tLtpPltlP
pPtLltLtpP
tpPpPpPplt
PpPtPpPP
ptpPPLtpPL
PLl,L
PpPPL
PLP(,P$,L
TtpPtyPx
tLtTtTttx
xtLttPt
tLlttLtl
ltlPll
lPltL
tlPtlltLlt
PpltplPp
PlPplPl
tLltLt
ltptlt
LtltLltLlP
tltlt
tltlt
lPpPp
tpPHt(t,L
tPLHPLH
H,(P,(t
ttPpxTtp
PtLttpPpPt
TttTtLttPp
lPptlt
LllPllt
lPltlPtL
tPpll
tllPplPplP
tltlt
tPpPtltL
tLtLttLtlP
ttLttP
pPltPpPplt
tL,lt
tltHPpPpP
ttLHt
t(P(H,$
tLxtPptT
tptLxPpttL
tLtpt
plPpltl
ltltL
ltlPpl
tLltpl
PtllP
tltlt
ltpPp
pPpltpltLt
ltlPt
pPptPpPpPp
tltLltlPtL
ltLtLtHtHt
LtLtPpt
tLtHPp
tPH,(,t
PLt(Ht(tH,
LHPLPH,Pt(
TttLtxPt
xPxPptT
LtLttL
Lltltlt
ltltl
tltlt
ltllPptltl
Pplltlt
LlPltpPp
lltplPplPp
tLtPpPtp
PltLtltltl
PpPtpPtplt
tpPltL
tltLlt
tLtLt
tLtLPP
t,LPLP,(
,L,pQpPtl
tpTtpPtp
PpPtxPtTpt
tLtLt
tltlt
LtlPl
pltltlPl
ltltP
tLlPlt
lltlt
lPltL
tltlPltLlt
lPplPp
PtlPptPptl
ltLtLtL
tLttLltPp,
ttLtL
tH,ptt(tL,
PPplP
xPptPpxP
PtpttP
tPpPtP
tltLl
Plltl
LtltP
pltLltLt
LtltpPlltp
ltpltLtltp
tLltLt
tLtlPt
PtLlttltl
tltpt
tLtLtl
p,tLt
PLtH,pPHP
t(H,,
PptTtxPp
tLxTtTtTtL
tLtxTtLttL
ltltl
tltlt
ltlltl
lPplt
Ppltl
PltltltLl
ltLtlPltLt
ltLtPltP
llPpltpltp
PpPpPpPpP
tLtLtP
PpttPp,p
,tLPHPH,Lt
,p,t(t(tH,
LH,,H,HPPp
uxPpxPxt
TtPtpPtpPx
LttLt
llPlt
pPllPtlt
ltlPltL
tllPplPpl
tLltl
ltLltL
ttpltLt
ltLttl
plPpPltltl
ltLtPpPltl
PptPtLtPpl
p,pHHPL
,pH,pHy
xPptPttL
ttpxPptTt
PptPpt
tptPptPptL
pltll
tllPp
Ppltlt
lPtpP
lPpPlt
ptLllP
ptpPptltLt
tLtPplttLt
LltLtltllt
LtPpPp,p
pPtLPttp,P
PHPHtLtLH
PL,(HtLtt
PxtPpxUt
xPxPptPpxP
llPpP
tltlt
plltll
Pltll
tlltlP
tltlPtL
tltPplPp
lPltLtlPlt
ltLltLtt
tPplt
PpPtplPpt
pPpPpHtPp
ttpH,(
P,(PH
xtLxtPtp
PtLtPPptPp
tPtLt
lttpP
lPlltl
LlltL
pltPpltPlt
pPltp
lPptltlPpl
Lltplltlt
tltltplP
tltLltP
plPpPpt
PptPp
PpHtLltpPt
t,pHP
p,Lt(
(tPL,t(tP(
HPP(tlP$
ltltl
ltlltLt
lttllPl
Ppltpt
PpltLltLlP
tLltP
ltpPlPtptL
ltpPt
tpPtpPpPp
(t,t(tLP
(tt,pPtp
PpxPxtLt
tLtPpPtTtL
tptPpt
ltLlt
Ltltll
PlPltl
LtpPt
pPpPpl
tpltp
tltpltL
PpltL
ttpltLl
tLtpPptLlt
tLtPtptLlt
t,pPp,
txPptP
PtptTtptt
PpPtL
ttLttL
Pltltl
ltlPll
pltltl
PplltLl
lPlPlt
pPltl
pltptlPtL
Ppltpll
tltlPltllt
tPpltpPl
PpHPlPpPtt
Lt(t(tLP(t
xPtxPpxP
pTtLt
tltlt
tPltl
tltltl
ltlPtplPlt
Pltlt
LtLlt
tLlltPlt
ltltL
tPlPltLltL
tpPpPplPp
lPpPltL
tpltpP
PLt(tPH
LxtLxtUt
tpPttPp
LtPtTt
ltltl
ltltlt
ltLtLl
ltllt
Ltltl
Pltltltl
tLtPlltptt
ptlPplPpPl
tltpltpltp
PttLtPpPtp
p,ptLlt(tL
t$t(PLP(
ttLttPpT
tPpxP
PpPtL
lttLlt
ltltlt
pltlP
pltll
pltlt
PpltplL
Ptltlt
PlPlt
PpPtp
PpPtPptlP
tHtt(Ht
,LPp,tp
tLxtp
PptPptPptt
ltltl
ttltplt
pPltl
Ltltl
tLllP
pltltpP
LltptLtpPt
ltltpPltlt
Ppt,pP
tPpt(
TttTtLtP
xtPptPpPpP
tPtpPtptP
llPpPplP
lltpltl
tlltltltl
plltl
LlltP
Ppltpl
LtLtllt
LtlPt
tPtLltPpPl
tLlPltlPpt
tlLH,
tLtlt
ttTpt
tTtxPpT
tLtLtT
tPptP
ltllt
tltlt
LtltLllP
PplPl
pltLt
PltLtL
ltLltl
tlPlPpt
ltlPpl
tptPpl
tPp,ttp
PpH,PLtlP
tLttPptL
PtpPpPpP
pPtpP
PptPp
pPtLtPp
Pltlt
tlPll
plltLtltl
PpPlt
tLltLl
tlPtLt
LlttLt
ltptPltLtp
pPptpPpP
LtLtLtp
LtpPptTt
TtpTt
Pltll
lPltl
ptpPplPp
ltLltPlttL
ltPpt
P,pHt
ttTttTpt
PpPpPtptPp
pPtpPt
llPlt
lPpltp
ltltL
PltLlltl
pltltL
ltltL
tpltLtlt
lltpltLt
lPltl
lPplltpltL
pltpl
PltPpPltPl
tLttLtP
pPtPpP
tLPtxPtp
tpPpP
ptLtP
lltLtl
Pltll
ltltl
tlPllt
LtlPp
lPlPl
tltltLtltl
LtpPpltLl
PpPtlt
PpltL
plttLtp
Ht(tPtLtlt
tLtpPpPptP
ltltLlt
ltlPt
tltLltplP
ltLltP
tPlPtLtPp
tLtltP
ttLtPtT
tlltltl
tlltL
tlltllPll
PpltlPlt
PltpPt
ltLltl
tPpltPltpP
pPpltpl
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languag.tbk
Religion.tbk
living.tbk
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nature.tbk
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HISTORY.TBK
music.tbk
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,%H.%
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Unable to locate CD,
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tb30DOS.DLL
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004-4
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createCDMediaPath
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leaveBook
enterBook
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help.tbk
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setClipControls
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adjustcontrols
ssm = syssuspendmessages
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buttonSize = 25*
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parentBounds =
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myObjs =
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obj =
oldb
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dllFunctions("USER.EXE")
function
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ssm = syssuspendmessages
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buttonSize = 25*
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parentBounds =
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myObjs =
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dllFunctions("USER.EXE")
function
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mmTF = mmTimeFormat
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ssm = syssuspendmessages
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buttonSize = 25*
syspageunitsperpixel
parentBounds =
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myObjs =
numberButtons = 0
obj =
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hasSlider
"slider"
sliderBounds =
9+ 5 *
l- 5 *
+ 7 *
- 7 *
sized
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moved
e= FALSE
= ssm
notifyBefore
lastTickCount
"mmGetTickCount"
dllFunctions("USER.EXE")
function
myParent =
sliderUpdate
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DWORD
= getTickCount ()
whatTick =
+ 500
myClip = clipRef
<> NULL
status = mmStatus
"playing"
mmTF = mmTimeFormat
pmilliseconds
pos = mmPosition
len = mmLength
setPos
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noop()
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s_tmp_bnds =
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newX =
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6frame
myStage = whatStage()
newPos =
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seekClip
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ssm = syssuspendmessages
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buttonSize = 25*
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parentBounds =
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myObjs =
numberButtons = 0
obj =
oldb
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"slider"
sliderBounds =
9+ 5 *
l- 5 *
+ 7 *
- 7 *
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B"thumb"
moved
e= FALSE
= ssm
notifyBefore
lastTickCount
"mmGetTickCount"
dllFunctions("USER.EXE")
function
myParent =
sliderUpdate
!TRUE
DWORD
= getTickCount ()
whatTick =
+ 500
myClip = clipRef
<> NULL
status = mmStatus
"playing"
mmTF = mmTimeFormat
pmilliseconds
pos = mmPosition
len = mmLength
setPos
B"thumb"
"paused"
noop()
"stopped"
"closed"
s_tmp_bnds =
s_tmp_wid1 = (
s_tmp_wid2 = (
) = down
newX =
newY =
updateMedia
b(0,(
6frame
myStage = whatStage()
newPos =
a*len)
seekClip
adjustcontrols
ssm = syssuspendmessages
e= TRUE
buttonSize = 25*
syspageunitsperpixel
parentBounds =
whatStage()
myObjs =
numberButtons = 0
obj =
oldb
hasSlider
"slider"
sliderBounds =
9+ 5 *
l- 5 *
+ 7 *
- 7 *
sized
B"thumb"
moved
e= FALSE
= ssm
notifyBefore
lastTickCount
"mmGetTickCount"
dllFunctions("USER.EXE")
function
myParent =
sliderUpdate
!TRUE
DWORD
= getTickCount ()
whatTick =
+ 500
myClip = clipRef
<> NULL
status = mmStatus
"playing"
mmTF = mmTimeFormat
pmilliseconds
pos = mmPosition
len = mmLength
setPos
B"thumb"
"paused"
noop()
"stopped"
"closed"
s_tmp_bnds =
s_tmp_wid1 = (
s_tmp_wid2 = (
) = down
newX =
ot a book or page: %.100s.
Not a logical value (must be True or False): %.100s.
Not a valid type of alignment: %.100s.
Not valid parameter (must be Fixed or Delimited): %.100s.
(.txt)